GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. According to the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global surface temperature increased 0.74 0.18 C (1.33 0.32 F) during the 20th century.[2][A] Most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century was caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, which results from human activity such asfossil fuel burning and deforestation.[3] Global dimming, a result of increasing concentrations of atmospheric aerosols that block sunlight from reaching the surface, has partially countered the effects of greenhouse gas induced warming. Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further1.1 to 6.4 C (2.0 to 11.5 F) during the 21st century.[2] The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts.[4]Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.[5] The scientific consensus is that anthropogenic global warming is occurring.[6][7][8][B] Nevertheless, political and public debate continues. TheKyoto Protocol is aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a "dangerous anthropogenic interference".[9] As of November 2009, 187 states have signed and ratified the protocol.[10

Temperature changes Main article: Temperature record

Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions, each smoothed on a decadal scale. The instrumental record and the unsmoothed annual value for 2004 are shown in black. Evidence for warming of the climate system includes observed increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level.[11][12][13][14][15] The most common measure of global warming is the trend in globally averaged temperature near the Earth's surface. Expressed as a linear trend, this temperature rose by 0.74 0.18 C over the period 19062005. The rate of warming over the last half of that period was almost double that for the period as a whole (0.13 0.03 C per decade, versus 0.07 C 0.02 C per decade). The urban heat island effect is estimated to account for about 0.002 C of warming per decade since 1900.[16]Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.13 and 0.22 C (0.22 and 0.4 F) per decade since 1979, according tosatellite temperature measurements. Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age.[17] Estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) and the National Climatic Data Center show that 2005 was the warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became available in the late 1800s, exceeding the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree.[18][19] Estimates prepared by the World Meteorological Organization and the Climatic Research Unit show 2005 as the second warmest year, behind 1998.[20][21] Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm because the strongest El Nio in the past century occurred during that year.[22] Global temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long term trends and can temporarily mask them. The relative stability in temperature from 2002 to 2009 is consistent with such an episode.[23][24] Temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 C per decade against 0.13 C per decade).[25] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation.[26] The Northern Hemisphere warms faster than the Southern Hemisphere because it has more land and because it has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to ice-albedo feedback. Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.[27] The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing. Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 C (0.9 F) would still occur.[28]

External forcings External forcing refers to processes external to the climate system (though not necessarily external to Earth) that influence climate. Climate responds to several types of external forcing, such as radiative forcing due to changes in atmospheric composition (mainly greenhouse gas concentrations), changes in solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[29] Attribution of recent climate change focuses on the first three types of forcing. Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and thus are too gradual to have caused the temperature changes observed in the past century.

Greenhouse gases Main articles: Greenhouse effect, Radiative forcing, and Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse effect schematic showing energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and earth's surface. Energy exchanges are expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2).

Recent atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO2) increases. Monthly CO2measurements display seasonal oscillations in overall yearly uptrend; each year's maximum occurs during theNorthern Hemisphere's late spring, and declines during its growing season as plants remove some atmospheric CO2. The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.[30] The question in terms of global warming is how the strength of the presumed greenhouse effect changes when human activity increases the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 C (59 F).[31][C] The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 3670 percent of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 926 percent; methane (CH4), which causes 49 percent; and ozone (O3), which causes 37 percent.[32][33][34] Clouds also affect the radiation balance, but they are composed of liquid water or ice and so have different effects on radiation from water vapor. Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750.[35] These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores.[36][37][38] Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago.[39] Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly deforestation.[40] CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.[41][42] Emissions scenarios, estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases, have been projected that depend upon uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments.[43] In most scenarios, emissions continue to rise over the century, while in a few, emissions are reduced.[44][45] These emission scenarios, combined with carbon cycle modelling, have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases will change in the future. Using the six IPCC SRES "marker" scenarios, models suggest that by the year 2100, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 could range between 541 and 970 ppm.[46] This is an increase of 90-250% above the concentration in the year 1750. Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach these levels and continue emissions past 2100 if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively exploited.[47] The destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons is sometimes mentioned in relation to global warming. Although there are a fewareas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduction of stratospheric ozone has a cooling influence on the entire troposphere, but a warming influence on the surface.[48] Substantial ozone depletion did not occur until the late 1970s.[49] Ozone in the troposphere (the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere) does contribute to surface warming.[50]

Aerosols and soot

Ship tracks over the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the United States. The climatic impacts from aerosol forcing could have a large effect on climate through the indirect effect. Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, has partially counteracted global warming from 1960 to the present.[51] The main cause of this dimming is aerosols produced by volcanoes and pollutants. These aerosols exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustionCO2 and aerosolshave largely offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO2 greenhouse gases such as methane.[52]Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to wet deposition which causes aerosols to have an atmospheric lifetime of one week. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosol concentrations will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.[53] In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, aerosols have indirect effects on the radiation budget.[54] Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets.[55] This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight.[56] Indirect effects are most noticeable in marine stratiform clouds, and have very little radiative effect on convective clouds. Aerosols, particularly indirect effects, represent the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.[57] Soot may cool or warm the surface, depending on whether it is airborne or deposited. Atmospheric soot aerosols directly absorb solar radiation, which heats the atmosphere and cools the surface. In isolated areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by atmospheric brown clouds.[58] Atmospheric soot always contributes additional warming to the climate system. When deposited, especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions, the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface.[59] The influences of aerosols, including black carbon, are most pronounced in the tropics and sub-tropics, particularly in Asia, while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere.[6

Solar variation Main article: Solar variation

Solar variation over the last thirty years. Variations in solar output have been the cause of past climate changes.[61] The consensus among climate scientists is that changes in solar forcing probably had a slight cooling effect in recent decades. This result is less certain than some others, with a few papers suggesting a warming effect.[29][62][63][64] Greenhouse gases and solar forcing affect temperatures in different ways. While both increased solar activity and increased greenhouse gases are expected to warm the troposphere, an increase in solar activity should warm the stratosphere while an increase in greenhouse gases should cool the stratosphere.[29] Observations show that temperatures in the stratosphere have been cooling since 1979, when satellite measurements became available. Radiosonde (weather balloon) data from the presatellite era show cooling since 1958, though there is greater uncertainty in the early radiosonde record.[65] A related hypothesis, proposed by Henrik Svensmark, is that magnetic activity of the sun deflects cosmic rays that may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei and thereby affect the climate.[66] Other research has found no relation between warming in recent decades and cosmic rays.[67][68] The influence of cosmic rays on cloud cover is about a factor of 100 lower than needed to explain the observed changes in clouds or to be a significant contributor to present-day climate change

Feedback Main article: Climate change feedback Feedback is a process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity, and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first. Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it. Feedback is important in the study of global warming because it may amplify or diminish the effect of a particular process. The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, a significant greenhouse gas. The main negative feedback is radiative cooling, which increases as the fourth power of temperature; the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space increases with the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. Imperfect understanding of feedbacks is a major cause of uncertainty and concern about global warming.

Climate models Main article: Global climate model Calculations of global warming prepared in or before 2001 from a range of climate models under the SRES A2 emissions scenario, which assumes no action is taken to reduce emissions and regionally divided economic development.

The geographic distribution of surface warming during the 21st century calculated by the HadCM3 climate model if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions. In this figure, the globally averaged warming corresponds to 3.0 C (5.4 F). The main tools for projecting future climate changes are mathematical models based on physical principles including fluid dynamics,thermodynamics and radiative transfer. Although they attempt to include as many processes as possible, simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system. All modern climate models are in fact combinations of models for different parts of the Earth. These include an atmospheric model for air movement, temperature, clouds, and other atmospheric properties; an ocean model that predicts temperature, salt content, and circulation of ocean waters; models for ice cover on land and sea; and a model of heat and moisture transfer from soil and vegetation to the atmosphere. Some models also include treatments of chemical and biological processes.[70] Warming due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases is not an assumption of the models; rather, it is an end result from the interaction of greenhouse gases with radiative transfer and other physical processes.[71] Although much of the variation in model outcomes depends on the greenhouse gas emissions used as inputs, the temperature effect of a specific greenhouse gas concentration (climate sensitivity) varies depending on the model used. The representation of clouds is one of the main sources of uncertainty in present-generation models.[72] Global climate model projections of future climate most often have used estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). In addition to human-caused emissions, some models also include a simulation of the carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive feedback, though this response is uncertain. Some observational studies also show a positive feedback.[73][74][75]Including uncertainties in future greenhouse gas concentrations and climate sensitivity, the IPCC anticipates a warming of 1.1 C to 6.4 C(2.0 F to 11.5 F) by the end of the 21st century, relative to 19801999.[2] Models are also used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and human-derived causes. Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects, they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by man-made greenhouse gas emissions.[29] The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or past climates.[76] Current climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate.[40] Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC. For example, observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted.[77]

Attributed and expected effects Main articles: Effects of global warming and Regional effects of global warming Global warming may be detected in natural, ecological or social systems as a change having statistical significance.[78] Attribution of these changes e.g., to natural or human activities, is the next step following detection.[79] Natural systems

Sparse records indicate that glaciers have been retreating since the early 1800s. In the 1950s measurements began that allow the monitoring of glacial mass balance, reported to the WGMS and the NSIDC. Global warming has been detected in a number of systems. Some of these changes, e.g., based on the instrumental temperature record, have been described in the section on temperature changes. Rising sea levels and observed decreases in snow and ice extent are consistent with warming.[15] Most of the increase in global average temperature since the mid-20th century is, with high probability,[D] atttributable to human-induced changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.[80] Even with current policies to reduce emissions, global emissions are still expected to continue to grow over the coming decades.[81] Over the course of the 21st century, increases in emissions at or above their current rate would very likely induce changes in the climate system larger than those observed in the 20th century. In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, across a range of future emission scenarios, model-based estimates of sea level rise for the end of the 21st century (the year 2090-2099, relative to 1980-1999) range from 0.18 to 0.59 m. These estimates, however, were not given a likelihood due to a lack of scientific understanding, nor was an upper bound given for sea level rise. Over the course of centuries to millennia, the melting of ice sheets could result in sea level rise of 46 m or more.[82] Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land, with most warming at high northern latitudes, and least warming over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.[81] Snow cover area and sea ice extent are expected to decrease. The frequency of hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation will very likely increase.

Ecological systems In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming.[15]Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs.[81] It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures.[83] Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.[84]

Social systems There is some evidence of regional climate change affecting systems related to human activities, including agricultural and forestry management activities at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.[15] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect some sectors and systems related to human activities.[81] Water resources may be stressed in some dry regions at mid-latitudes, the dry tropics, and areas that depend on snow and ice melt. Reduced water availability may affect agriculture in low latitudes. Low-lying coastal systems are vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge. Human health in populations with limited capacity to adapt to climate change. It is expected that some regions will be particularly affected by climate change, including the Arctic, Africa, small islands, and Asian and African megadeltas. Some people, such as the poor, young children, and the elderly, are particularly at risk, even in highincome areas.

Responses to global warming

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an approach to mitigation. Emissions may besequestered from fossil fuel power plants, or removed during processing in hydrogen production. When used on plants, it is known as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage. Mitigation Main article: Global warming mitigation Reducing the amount of future climate change is called mitigation of climate change. The IPCC defines mitigation as activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or enhance the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere.[85] Many countries, bothdeveloping and developed, are aiming to use cleaner, less polluting, technologies.[86] Use of these technologies aids mitigation and could result in substantial reductions in CO2 emissions. Policies include targets for emissions reductions, increased use of renewable energy, and increased energy efficiency. Studies indicate substantial potential for future reductions in emissions.[87] Since even in the most optimistic scenario, fossil fuels are going to be used for years to come, mitigation may also involve carbon capture and storage, a process that traps CO2produced by factories and gas or coal power stations and then stores it, usually underground.[88]

Adaptation Main article: Adaptation to global warming Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate change may be planned, e.g., by local or national government, or spontaneous, i.e., done privately without government intervention.[89] The ability to adapt is closely linked to social andeconomic development.[87] Even societies with high capacities to adapt are still vulnerable to climate change. Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis. The barriers, limits, and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood. Another policy response is engineering of the climate (geoengineering). This policy response is sometimes grouped together with mitigation.[90] Geoengineering is largely unproven, and reliable cost estimates for it have not yet been published.[91

UNFCCC Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[92] The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent "dangerous" human interference of the climate system.[93] As is stated in the Convention, this requires that GHGs are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion. The UNFCCC recognizes differences among countries in their responsibility to act on climate change.[94] In the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, most developed countries (listed in Annex I of the treaty) took on legally binding commitments to reduce their emissions.[95] Policy measures taken in response to these commitments have reduced emissions.[96] For many developing (non-Annex I) countries, reducing poverty is their overriding aim.[97] At the 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, held in 2009 at Copenhagen, several UNFCCC Parties produced the Copenhagen Accord.[98] Parties agreeing with the Accord aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below 2 C.[99]

Views on global warming Main articles: Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming See also: Scientific opinion on climate change, Climate change consensus, and Climate change controversy Per capita greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.

Total greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change. There are different views over what the appropriate policy response to climate change should be.[100][101] These competing views weigh the benefits of limiting emissions of greenhouse gases against the costs. In general, it seems likely that climate change will impose greater damages and risks in poorer regions.[102] Politics Developing and developed countries have made different arguments over who should bear the burden of costs for cutting emissions. Developing countries often concentrate on per capita emissions, that is, the total emissions of a country divided by its population.[103] Per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.[104] This is used to make the argument that the real problem of climate change is due to the profligate and unsustainable lifestyles of those living in rich countries.[103] On the other hand, commentators from developed countries more often point out that it is total emissions that matter.[103] In 2008, developing countries made up around half of the world's total emissions of CO2 from cement production and fossil fuel use.[105] The Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005, sets legally binding emission limitations for most developed countries.[95] Developing countries are not subject to limitations. This exemption led the U.S. (under President George W. Bush) and a previous Australian Government to decide not to ratify the treaty.[106][107] At the time, almost all world leaders expressed their disappointment over President Bush's decision.[107] Australia has since ratified the Kyoto protocol.[1

Public opinion In 20072008 Gallup Polls surveyed 127 countries. Over a third of the world's population was unaware of global warming, with people in developing countries less aware than those indeveloped, and those in Africa the least aware. Of those aware, Latin America leads in belief that temperature changes are a result of human activities while Africa, parts of Asia and the Middle East, and a few countries from the Former Soviet Union lead in the opposite belief.[109] In the Western world, opinions over the concept and the appropriate responses are divided. Nick Pidgeon of Cardiff University finds that "results show the different stages of engagement[clarification needed] about global warming on each side of the Atlantic"; where Europe debates the appropriate responses while the United States debates whether climate change is happening.[110][111][vague][dubious discuss] Other views Most scientists accept that humans are contributing to observed climate change.[41][112] National science academies have called on world leaders for policies to cut global emissions.[113] There are, however, some scientists and non-scientists who question aspects of climate change science.[114][115] Organizations such as the libertarian Competitive Enterprise Institute, conservative commentators, and companies such as ExxonMobil have challenged IPCC climate change scenarios, funded scientists who disagree with the scientific consensus, and provided their own projections of the economic cost of stricter controls.[116][117][118][119] Environmental organizations and public figures have emphasized changes in the current climate and the risks they entail, while promoting adaptation to changes in infrastructural needs and emissions reductions.[120] Some fossil fuel companies have scaled back their efforts in recent years,[121] or called for policies to reduce global warming.[122] Many studies link population growth with emissions and the effect of climate change.

INTRODUCTION
One of the most controversial science issues The problem is that global warming is not just a science concern, but encompasses economics, sociology, geopolitics, local politics, and individuals choice of lifestyle. There is a clear evidence for a 0.6 C rise in global temperature and 20 cm rise in sea during 20th century. It is predicted that global temp. could rise by 1.4 C and 5.6C and sea level could rise by between 20 cm and 88 cm by the year 2100. In addition, weather patterns will become less predictable and occurrence of extreme climate events, such as storms, floods, and droughts, will increase.

The Gradual rise in the temperature of the globe is referred to as Global Warming (Graph 1: Rise in the temp.) The phenomenon can be understood in the light of Green House Effect
(Image 2: Green House Effect)

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE
Chloro-Flouro-Carbons (CFCs)/ CO2
(Graph 3a , Image 3b & Image 3c & Image 3d)

Industrialization (Image 4) Burning of fossil fuel Oil, gas & coal. No re-cycling (Image 5) Deforestation (Image 6) Over-population (image 7)

IMPLICATIONS (Graph 7)

1) Ozone Depletion (Image 8)

OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone depletion describes a slow, steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (ozone layer) since the late 1970s CFCs and other contributory substancesozone-depleting substances (ODS) Increased exposure to UV radiation

IMPLICATIONS cont
2) Extinction of Plants and Animals
(Image 9) Stress on water resources Uncertainties in cereal production Co2 acts as fertilizer Increased pest and diseases

IMPLICATIONS cont Melting of glaciers

3) Melting of glaciers in the Antarctic and Arctic RegionsThe glaciers of Mount Kilimanjaro in east Africa and the Andes of Peru are melting so fast that they could disappear within 10 to 20 years. The news follows other warnings that the Arctic ice field is both shrinking in area and thinning in depth. A glacier in Antarctica has also retreated dramatically in the past decade. Now, according to Lonnie Thompson of Ohio State University, the Quelccaya glacier in Peru has retreated 32 times faster in the past two years than in the 20 years from 1963 to 1983. Kilimanjaro's ice fields have retreated by at least 80% since 1912. The icecap of Mount Kenya has shrunk by 40% since 1963. In 1972, in Venezuela, there were six glaciers; now there are only two. They too will melt within a decade. "As a result of global warming, many tropical glaciers around the globe may disappear completely by 2020," Professor Thompson told the American Association. "Apart from the dramatic impact on local communities it is also a potent sign that the Earth is undergoing enormous changes

a. ANTARCTICA Antarctica harbors 70% of the world glaciers. Average temp. of the region is -70c. On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. (Graph 12) A10 year comparison of the balance between glacier decline and snowfall accumulation found that ice loss had increased 75%. In 2006, Antarctica lost a net 200 billion tones of ice. (Image: 13)
(Image: 14)

b. ARCTIC REGION

The area includes North pole region i.e. Alaska, Siberia, Greenland, Iceland and Scandinavian countries. Average winter temp. is -60 oC. Ice retreating @ 8% per decade.
(Image 15)

IMPLICATIONS cont EXTINCTION OF PLANTS

(Image 10)

Melting of glaciers in the Antarctic and Arctic Regions

(Image 11)

Other Implications
Social impact:
Low land areas will be inundated. Bangladesh, Maldives, Egypt (Nile delta population), Mauritius, Siberia & Alaska..

Floods (Image), (Bangladesh, India & Indonesia..); Drought & water shortage (Africa); Cyclones (Japan & Philippines), hurricanes (Florida)

Refugees - 200 million by 2012.

Property losses
Cereal shortage- 15 countries survey showed that seasons are shrinking in no. & variety destroying traditional crops.

Coastal area shrinking . Increase in the instability of cliffs and beaches. Losses to property around coastal areas. Tourism.. Increased number of hurricanes, tsunamis & tornados (Image)
Health problems. Skin cancer, malaria and cholera epidemics Increased acidification in ocean effecting coral reef/ grass meadows, marine life etc. (Image) Effect of Co2 on Crops. Increased pests and diseases. CO2 is going to act as fertilizer.

Economic impact:
Economies of low land countries would become vulnerable. New tussle among nations for capturing economic resources.

Political impact:
E.g. In arctic region, the monopoly game has already started among 5 nations. Russia holds the trump card while America seems to be sidelined.

Episodes
Hurricanes in Florida. Katrina, Rita Nov.09- Abnormal rain in Jeddah. (It has no drainage system). Dec. Dubai rain killing 6 people

Last year (2008) , the Atlantic saw 16 named tropical storms -- from Tropical Storm Arthur on May 30, which killed five and caused $78 million in damages on Belize, to Hurricane Paloma, which formed Nov. 5 and struck Cuba as a Category 4 monster that was the second-most intense hurricane ever recorded in November. All in all, there were eight Atlantic hurricanes and storms caused an estimated $41 billion in damages and left hundreds dead -- more than 800 in Haiti alone. The eastern Pacific saw 16 named storms, seven of them hurricanes, starting with Tropical Storm Alma on May 29 and ending Nov. 5 when Tropical Storm Polo petered out. The 2008 hurricane season produced several record-breaking storms, including Tropical Storm Alma (the easternmost named storm ever to form in the Pacific) and Hurricane Bertha (the longest-lived Atlantic tropical storm on record). Four storms were notable -- or deadly -- enough that the names were retired: Alma, Gustav, Ike, and Paloma. Hurricane Gustav caused $4 billion damage in Louisiana and killed 112 people, including 77 in Haiti. Hurricane Ike was the season's strongest hurricane and the third-costliest storm (more than $19 billion) to hit the U.S., devastating Galveston, Texas, and causing about 100 deaths in the Caribbean and along the U.S. Gulf Coast. What's in store for 2009?

2009 hurricane forecast

If and how global warming influences hurricane frequency or intensity is still a matter of genuine scientific debate. Forecasters warn that the number of storms and their intensity is only one key determinant of risk of property damage and loss of life: The biggest factor is who lives in harm's way and how well they prepare. Some 35 million U.S. residents live in hurricane-prone regions, and experts urge them to prepare. When those storms do come, they will be given names. Tropical cyclones are given names when they achieve tropical storm strength, with sustained winds of at least 39 mph. Hurricanes are tropical storms that have sustained winds that exceed 74 mph, and major hurricanes have sustained winds that exceed 111 mp

TORNADOES: Images of 32 different shapes, sizes and colors Pictures and information about thirytwo different shapes, sizes, and colors of tornadoes. www.chaseday.com/tornadoes.htm

The deadliest tornadoes by far have occurred in a small area of Bangladesh and East India. In this 8,000-square-mile (21,000 km2) area (roughly the size of New Hampshire), 24 of the 42 tornadoes which are known to have killed 100 or more people occurred.[1] This is likely due to the high population density and poor economic status of the area, as well as a lack of early-warning system

Tsunami are not rare, with at least 25 tsunami occurring in the last century. Of these, many were recorded in the AsiaPacific region particularly Japan. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami Main article: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami killed over 300,000[citation needed] people with many bodies either being lost to the sea or unidentified. Some unofficial estimates have claimed that approximately 1 million people may have died directly or indirectly solely as a result of the tsunami.[citation needed] According to an article in Geographical magazine (April 2008), the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 26, 2004 was not the worst that the region could expect. Professor Costas Synolakis of the Tsunami Research Center at the University of Southern California coauthored a paper in Geophysical Journal International which suggests that a future tsunami in the Indian Ocean basin could affect locations such as Madagascar, Singapore, Somalia, Western Australia, and many others

Important Protocols
1985 Vienna Convention 1987 Montreal Convention Kyoto Protocol 2001-2012 Montreal Protocol (2004) United Nation Commission on Environment Protection Dec.09- Copenhagen Conference

Critical Analysis
The developed nations not taking the task seriously. US, China & India not willing to cut the CO2 emission. The multinational firms like Adidas, Gucci, IKEA, Toyota, Honda, Ford, Wal- mart, Carrefour are silent partners to crime. The third world countries are in a state of flux. On one side they want to enhance their economic potential while on the other side they are facing pressure to follow the protocols. Brazil, the largest cattle industry of the world, Amazon and Mexico responsible for 1/5th of the worlds annual deforestation. An uphill task. Poor nations need $140 bn a year by 2020 for climate fight. (EU report- Jun.2009) 80 colonies of penguin and Wordsworth cookoos, gorilla in Africa, the bears of Andes, forest birds of Tanzania, the Bengal tigers, soon to disappear..

SOLUTIONS
Development of Alternatives as CFC were phased out like PHOSTR EX phasing out HFCs Forestry (Image) Construction of dykes (Image) Energy Alternatives (Image) Green Technology like green cars, green industry (low- carb industry) etc. (Image) Obamas Plan regarding green jobs, technology and environment.

EU environment protection program.

Developments
IGPCC-2007: 85% cut in carbon emission by 2050 to reduce temp. by 2c. July 09- G-8 summit (Italy): Main agenda- Climate change. Aug.09: Masdar- 1st green city in Abu Dhabi. 6 skm, 40000 residents- in a solar powered,
carbon free environment. 1st green university

CONCLUSION
Can we examine the whole basis of modern society? It is not only scientific issue but also a moral dilemma for the global society. Can we pin all our hopes on clean technology? Can we prepare, plan for the worst and adapt? The nations and regions need to plan for the next 50 years. Long term planning would be difficult for most societies because of the very short term nature of the politics. The time has come to change some of the basic rules of our society to allow us to adopt a much more global and long term approach. Climate is an ill-tempered beast, and we are poking it with sticks.

The total area of Greenland is 2,166,086 km (836,109 sq mi), of which the Greenland ice sheet covers 1,755,637 km (677,676 sq mi) (81%) and has a volume of approximately 2,850,000 cubic kilometres (680,000 cu mi).[28] The coastline of Greenland is 39,330 km (24,430 miles) long, about the same length as the Earth's circumference at the Equator. The highest point on Greenland is at 3,859 metres (12,119 ft). However, the majority of Greenland is under 1,500 metres (5,000 ft) elevation. The weight of the massive Greenland ice sheet has depressed the central land area to form a basin lying more than 300 m (1,000 ft) below sea level If the Greenland ice sheet were to melt away completely, the world's sea level would rise by more than 7 m (23 ft)[30] and Greenland would most likely become an archipelago.

Worldwide, the proportion of hurricanes reaching categories 4 or 5 with wind speeds above 56 metres per second has risen from 20% in the 1970s to 35% in the 1990s.[17] Precipitation hitting the US from hurricanes has increased by 7% over the twentieth century

2009- hurricane in florida Energy traders watch for storms that could enter the Gulf of Mexico and threaten U.S. oil and natural gas platforms and refineries along the coast. Commodities traders watch storms that could hit crops such as citrus and cotton in Florida and other states along the coast to Texas

Increasing water vapor at Boulder, Colorado. Over the course of the 20th century, evaporation rates have reduced worldwide [31]; this is thought by many to be explained by global dimming. As the climate grows warmer and the causes of global dimming are reduced, evaporation will increase due to warmer oceans. Because the world is a closed system this will cause heavier rainfall, with more erosion. This erosion, in turn, can in vulnerable tropical areas (especially in Africa) lead to desertification. On the other hand, in other areas, increased rainfall lead to growth of forests in dry desert areas. Scientists have found evidence that increased evaporation could result in more extreme weather as global warming progresses. The IPCC Third Annual Report says: "...global average water vapor concentration and precipitation are projected to increase during the 21st century. By the second half of the 21st century, it is likely that precipitation will have increased over northern mid- to high latitudes and Antarctica in winter. At low latitudes there are both regional increases and decreases over land areas. Larger year to year variations in precipitation are very likely over most areas where an increase in mean precipitation is projected."[10][32] Cost of more extreme weather

catastrophe losses should be expected to double roughly every 10 years because of increases in construction costs, increases in the number of structures and changes in their characteristics.[33] The Association of British Insurers has stated that limiting carbon emissions would avoid 80% of the projected additional annual cost of tropical cyclones by the 2080s. The cost is also increasing partly because of building in exposed areas such as coasts and floodplains. The ABI claims that reduction of the vulnerability to some inevitable effects of climate change, for example through more resilient buildings and improved flood defences, could also result in considerable costsavings in the longterm.[34] Local climate change Main article: Regional effects of global warming

The first recorded South Atlantic hurricane, "Catarina", which hit Brazil in March 2004 In the northern hemisphere, the southern part of the Arctic region (home to 4,000,000 people) has experienced a temperature rise of 1 C to 3 C (1.8 F to 5.4 F) over the last 50 years.[citation needed] Canada, Alaska and Russia are experiencing initial melting of permafrost. This may disrupt ecosystems and by increasing bacterial activity in the soil lead to these areas becoming carbon sources instead of carbon sinks.[35] A study (published in Science) of changes to eastern Siberia's permafrost suggests that it is gradually disappearing in the southern regions, leading to the loss of nearly 11% of Siberia's nearly 11,000 lakes since 1971.[36] At the same time, western Siberia is at the initial stage where melting permafrost is creating new lakes, which will eventually start disappearing as in the east. Furthermore, permafrost melting will eventually cause methane release from melting permafrost peat bogs

Since 1980, glacier retreat has become increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, and has threatened the existence of many of the glaciers of the world. This process has increased markedly since 1995.[41] Excluding the ice caps and ice sheets of the Arctic and Antarctic, the total surface area of glaciers worldwide has decreased by 50% since the end of the 19th century.[42] Currently glacier retreat rates and mass balance losses have been increasing in the Andes, Alps, Pyrenees, Himalayas, Rocky Mountains and North Cascades. The loss of glaciers not only directly causes landslides, flash floods and glacial lake overflow,[43] but also increases annual variation in water flows in rivers. Glacier runoff declines in the summer as glaciers decrease in size, this decline is already observable in several regions.[44] Glaciers retain water on mountains in high precipitation years, since the snow cover accumulating on glaciers protects the ice from melting. In warmer and drier years, glaciers offset the lower precipitation amounts with a higher meltwater input.[42] Of particular importance are the Hindu Kush and Himalayan glacial melts that comprise the principal dry-season water source of many of the major rivers of the Central, South, East and Southeast Asian mainland. Increased melting would cause greater flow for several decades, after which "some areas of the most populated regions on Earth are likely to 'run out of water'" as source glaciers are depleted.[45] The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Temperatures there are rising four times faster than in the rest of China, and glacial retreat is at a high speed compared to elsewhere in the world.[46] According to a Reuters report, the Himalayan glaciers that are the sources of Asia's biggest rivers Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellowcould diminish as temperatures rise.[47] Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers.[48] India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.[49][50][51] It has to be acknowledged, however, that increased seasonal runoff of Himalayan glaciers led to increased agricultural production in northern India throughout the 20th century

Since 1980, glacier retreat has become increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, and has threatened the existence of many of the glaciers of the world. This process has increased markedly since 1995.[41] Excluding the ice caps and ice sheets of the Arctic and Antarctic, the total surface area of glaciers worldwide has decreased by 50% since the end of the 19th century.[42] Currently glacier retreat rates and mass balance losses have been increasing in the Andes, Alps, Pyrenees, Himalayas, Rocky Mountains and North Cascades. The loss of glaciers not only directly causes landslides, flash floods and glacial lake overflow,[43] but also increases annual variation in water flows in rivers. Glacier runoff declines in the summer as glaciers decrease in size, this decline is already observable in several regions.[44] Glaciers retain water on mountains in high precipitation years, since the snow cover accumulating on glaciers protects the ice from melting. In warmer and drier years, glaciers offset the lower precipitation amounts with a higher meltwater input.[42] Of particular importance are the Hindu Kush and Himalayan glacial melts that comprise the principal dry-season water source of many of the major rivers of the Central, South, East and Southeast Asian mainland. Increased melting would cause greater flow for several decades, after which "some areas of the most populated regions on Earth are likely to 'run out of water'" as source glaciers are depleted.[45] The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Temperatures there are rising four times faster than in the rest of China, and glacial retreat is at a high speed compared to elsewhere in the world.[46] According to a Reuters report, the Himalayan glaciers that are the sources of Asia's biggest rivers Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellowcould diminish as temperatures rise.[47] Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers.[48] India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.[49][50][51] It has to be acknowledged, however, that increased seasonal runoff of Himalayan glaciers led to increased agricultural production in northern India throughout the 20th century

The recession of mountain glaciers, notably in Western North America, Franz-Josef Land, Asia, the Alps, the Pyrenees, Indonesia and Africa, and tropical and sub-tropical regions of South America, has been used to provide qualitative support to the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. Many glaciers are being lost to melting further raising concerns about future local water resources in these glaciated areas. In Western North America the 47 North Cascade glaciers observed all are retreating.[53] Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland Despite their proximity and importance to human populations, the mountain and valley glaciers of temperate latitudes amount to a small fraction of glacial ice on the earth. About 99% is in the great ice sheets of polar and subpolar Antarctica and Greenland. These continuous continental-scale ice sheets, 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) or more in thickness, cap the polar and subpolar land masses. Like rivers flowing from an enormous lake, numerous outlet glaciers transport ice from the margins of the ice sheet to the ocean. Glacier retreat has been observed in these outlet glaciers, resulting in an increase of the ice flow rate. In Greenland the period since the year 2000 has brought retreat to several very large glaciers that had long been stable. Three glaciers that have been researched, Helheim, Jakobshavn Isbr and Kangerdlugssuaq Glaciers, jointly drain more than 16% of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Satellite images and aerial photographs from the 1950s and 1970s show that the front of the glacier had remained in the same place for decades. But in 2001 it began retreating rapidly, retreating 7.2 km (4.5 mi) between 2001 and 2005. It has also accelerated from 20 m (66 ft)/day to 32 m (100 ft)/day.[54] Jakobshavn Isbr in western Greenland had been moving at speeds of over 24 m (79 ft)/day with a stable terminus since at least 1950. The glacier's ice tongue began to break apart in 2000, leading to almost complete disintegration in 2003, while the retreat rate doubled to over 30 m (98 ft)/day

Transport Roads, airport runways, railway lines and pipelines, (including oil pipelines, sewers, water mains etc) may require increased maintenance and renewal as they become subject to greater temperature variation. Regions already adversely affected include areas of permafrost, which are subject to high levels of subsidence, resulting in buckling roads, sunken foundations, and severely cracked runways

Climate change is expected to have a mixed effect on agriculture, with some regions benefitting from moderate temperature increases and others being negatively affected.[113] Low-latitude areas are at most risk of suffering decreased crop yields. Mid- and high-latitude areas could see increased yields for temperature increases of up to 13C (relative to the period 1980-99). According to the IPCC report, above 3C of warming, global agricultural production might decline, but this statement is made with low to medium confidence. Most of the agricultural studies assessed in the Report do not include changes in extreme weather events, changes in the spread of pests and diseases, or potential developments that may aid adaptation to climate change. An article in the New Scientist describes how rice crops might be strongly affected by rising temperatures

Forests Pine forests in British Columbia have been devastated by a pine beetle infestation, which has expanded unhindered since 1998 at least in part due to the lack of severe winters since that time; a few days of extreme cold kill most mountain pine beetles and have kept outbreaks in the past naturally contained. The infestation, which (by November 2008) has killed about half of the province's lodgepole pines (33 million acres or 135,000 km)[150][151] is an order of magnitude larger than any previously recorded outbreak[152] and passed via unusually strong winds in 2007 over the continental divide to Alberta. An epidemic also started, be it at a lower rate, in 1999 in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. The United States forest service predicts that between 2011 and 2013 virtually all 5 million acres (20,000 km2) of Colorados lodgepole pine trees over five inches (127 mm) in diameter will be lost[151]. As the northern forests are a carbon sink, while dead forests are a major carbon source, the loss of such large areas of forest has a positive feedback on global warming. In the worst years, the carbon emission due to beetle infestation of forests in British Columbia alone approaches that of an average year of forest fires in all of Canada or five years worth of emissions from that country's transportation sources [152][153]. Besides the immediate ecological and economic impact, the huge dead forests provide a fire risk. Even many healthy forests appear to face an increased risk of forest fires because of warming climates. The 10-year average of boreal forest burned in North America, after several decades of around 10,000 km (2.5 million acres), has increased steadily since 1970 to more than 28,000 km (7 million acres) annually.[154]. Though this change may be due in part to changes in forest management practices, in the western U.S., since 1986, longer, warmer summers have resulted in a fourfold increase of major wildfires and a sixfold increase in the area of forest burned, compared to the period from 1970 to 1986. A similar increase in wildfire activity has been reported in Canada from 1920 to 1999.[155] Forest fires in Indonesia have dramatically increased since 1997 as well. These fires are often actively started to clear forest for agriculture. They can set fire to the large peat bogs in the region and the CO released by these peat bog fires has been estimated, in an average year, to be 15% of the quantity of CO produced by fossil fuel combustion

Sea level rise is projected to increase salt-water intrusion into groundwater in some regions, affecting drinking water and agriculture in coastal zones.[161] Increased evaporation will reduce the effectiveness of reservoirs. Increased extreme weather means more water falls on hardened ground unable to absorb it, leading to flash floods instead of a replenishment of soil moisture or groundwater levels. In some areas, shrinking glaciers threaten the water supply.[162] The continued retreat of glaciers will have a number of different effects. In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished. This situation is particularly acute for irrigation in South America, where numerous artificial lakes are filled almost exclusively by glacial melt.(BBC) Central Asian countries have also been historically dependent on the seasonal glacier melt water for irrigation and drinking supplies. In Norway, the Alps, and the Pacific Northwest of North America, glacier runoff is important for hydropower. Higher temperatures will also increase the demand for water for the purposes of cooling and hydration. In the Sahel, there has been an unusually wet period from 1950 until 1970, followed by extremely dry years from 1970 to 1990. From 1990 until 2004 rainfall returned to levels slightly below the 18981993 average, but year-to-year variability was high

Health Climate change currently contributes to the burden of disease and premature deaths. Economic development will affect how effective adaptation to climate change will be. According to the IPCC report, it is likely that: climate change will bring some benefits, such as reduced cold deaths. the balance of positive and negative health impacts will vary from one location to another. adverse health impacts will be greatest in low-income countries. the negative health impacts of climate change will outweigh the benefits, especially in developing countries. Some examples of negative health impacts include increased malnutrition, increased deaths, disease and injury due to heat waves, floods, storms, fires and droughts, and increased frequency of cardio-respiratory diseases.[165] According to a 2009 study by UCL academics, climate change and global warming pose the biggest threat to human health in the 21st century

Direct effects of temperature rise The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global warming could mean more cardiovascular diseases, doctors warn.[168] Higher air temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.[169] Rising temperatures have two opposing direct effects on mortality: higher temperatures in winter reduce deaths from cold; higher temperatures in summer increase heatrelated deaths. The net local impact of these two direct effects depends on the current climate in a particular area. Palutikof et al. (1996) calculate that in England and Wales for a 1 C temperature rise the reduced deaths from cold outweigh the increased deaths from heat, resulting in a reduction in annual average mortality of 7000,[170] while Keatinge et al. (2000) suggest that any increases in mortality due to increased temperatures would be outweighed by much larger short term declines in cold related mortalities.[171] Cold-related deaths are far more numerous than heat-related deaths in the United States, Europe, and almost all countries outside the tropics.[172] During 19791999, a total of 3,829 deaths in the United States were associated with excessive heat due to weather conditions,[173] while in that same period a total of 13,970 deaths were attributed to hypothermia vectors[178] conveying infectious disease such as dengue fever,[179] West Nile virus,[180] and malaria

The Kyoto Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of November 2009, 187 states have signed and ratified the protocol.[2] Under the Protocol, 37 industrialized countries (called "Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member countries give general commitments. Annex I countries agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from the 1990 level. Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone

s
Antarctica's total area is 14 million km2 In summer, there is another 2.5 million km2 of sea ice, which increases to 19 million km2in winter, more than doubling the size of Antarctica! Only 2% of the land is not covered in ice. Ice slowly builds up over millions of years at the rate of 50 to 900 mm/year. There are about 24 000 000 km2 of ice altogether. Antarctic ice which at its thickest reaches 5 km in depth, comprises almost 70% of the earth's fresh water. If it all melted, sea levels would rise between 50 and 60 m. Antarctic glaciers are giant rivers of ice that flow slowly towards the sea. Due to its ice cap Antarctica is the highest continent, averaging 2300 m above sea level. The highest peak is Vinson Massif at 4900 m. Antarctica has the lowest recorded temperature; -90C at Vostock in 1983. Inland, temperatures range from -70C in winter to -35C in summer. Corresponding figures for coastal regions are -30C and 0C. Antarctica is so cold because up to 80% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space by ice and snow. The other 20% is largely absorbed by the atmosphere or reflected by clouds.