Rapidly Varied Flow --- the Energy Principle

The Energy Equation

Application of the Energy Equation
Flow over a smooth step
Specific Energy
Subcritical, Critical and Supercritical Flow
The Froude Number
Venturi Flume
Common phenomenon! -- Develop mainly at hydraulic structures, e.g. flow
measuring structures like weirs and flumes, regulation structures like gates
and valves, and discharge structures like spillways.

Important! -- Hydraulic structures form part of major water engineering
schemes, for irrigation, water supply, drainage, sewage treatment,
hydropower, etc.

Difficult! -- Water surface is highly curved and the assumptions of
hydrostatic pressure distribution and parallel streamlines that are
appropriate for uniform and gradually varied flows do not apply.

Solvable! -- Good approximation can be obtained by using the energy and
momentum principles (usually sufficiently accurate for engineering
purpose).
Introduction
Rapid changes in stage and velocity occur whenever there is a
sudden change in cross-section, a very steep bed-slope or some
obstruction in the channel Rapidly varied flow.
Page 79
Bernoulli equation for uniform flow in horizontal channel:
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
H Z
g
V
g
p
= + +
2
2

Page 79
Assuming hydrostatic pressure
distribution, at point A:
Energy Equation
A A
gy p =
A A
y g p =
Bernoulli equation:
H Z
g
V
y = + +
2
2
y --- water depth; Z --- elevation of the interested point above datum
or
H Z
g
V
g
p
= + +
2
2

* Valid for most of the engineering purposes because practical channels have
very small bed slopes (e.g. less than 1:100, corresponding to less than 0.57
o
).
Page 79
Application of the Energy Equation
Question: In an steady uniform flow, the upstream
depth and discharge are known. Calculate the flow
conditions (e.g. y2) after being interrupted by a
raised bed level (Z) when neglecting energy losses.
Energy equation + continuity equation
Bernoulli equation to 1 and 2:
Z
g
V
y
g
V
y A + + = +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
Continuity equation:
Q A V A V = =
2 2 1 1
q
b
Q
y V y V = = =
2 2 1 1
Z
gy
q
y
gy
q
y A + + = +
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2
What principles should be used?
Page 80
Application of the Energy Equation
Cubic equation with the only unknown y
2
.

Three solutions to the equation only one is correct for this situation.
0 2 2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
3
2
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A + q
y
q
gy Z g y gy
Which solution is the correct one for y
2
?
Page 80
Specific Energy
Definition (Bakhmeteff 1912):
Specific energy, E
s
--- energy of the flow referred to channel bed as datum:
For steady flow, the specific energy equation can be written as:
Concept of specific energy --- provide the extra information for solving the
above problem!
g
V
y E
s
2
2
+ =
g
A Q
y E
s
2
) (
2
+ =
In a rectangular channel of width b, Q/A = bq/by = q/y:
2
2
2gy
q
y E
s
+ =
Page 80 -- 81
Specific Energy
--- Cubic equation in y for a given E
s
(three solutions but only two will be positive)
q is constant:
constant
2
) (
2
2
= =
g
q
y y E
s
or
2
constant
) (
y
y E
s
=
Considering only positive solutions, the equation gives a curve with two
asymptotes:
y 0, E
s


y , E
s
y
Page 81
Resolve the Problem
Uniform flow interrupted by a smooth hump:
Bernoulli equation:
Z
g
V
y
g
V
y A + + = +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
Z E E
s s
A + =
2 1
Point A on the curve corresponds to the specific energy at point 1 in the channel.

Point 2 in the channel must be at either point B or point B on the specific energy
curve.

The depth represented by B and B are alternate depths, i.e. the depth with the
same specific energy.
Page 81
Resolve the Problem
All points between 1 and 2 must lie on the specific
energy curve between A and B or B.

To reach point B, there are chances that
(for those points locate at the curves between B and
B) which is physically impossible.

Flow depth at section 2 must correspond to point B
on the specific energy curve.
Z E E
s s
A >
2 1
Page 81
Maximum Step Size
The maximum step for a given
discharge and a given approaching
specific energy can be determined as
the difference between the
approaching specific energy and the
minimum specific energy.

If the bottom step is bigger than the
maximum step for the given
approaching specific energy and
discharge, either the discharge or the
approaching specific energy has to be
modified.

y
c
y
2
y
1
y

E
s
Z
max
Z >Z
max
E
s1
E
s1
new
y
1
new
In the case when the discharge is kept constant:
the approaching specific energy has to rise in order to provide a
larger limit for the maximum step.
Page 81 -- 82
Maximum Step Size
when the approaching specific energy remains uncharged,
the discharge has to fall in order to obtain a new minimum specific
energy and thus to produce a bigger maximum step for the given
approaching specific energy.

y
c
y
1
y

E
s
Z
max
Z >Z
max
E
s1
y
c
new
q
1
q
new
< q
1

Page 82
Flow under a sluice gate
Neglecting head losses, the depth before and after the gate are alternate
depths as the specific energy is the same at both locations.

y
1
y
2
Energy level

y
2
y
1
y

E
s
Page 82
Example

a) Determine the depth of flow downstream of a section in which the bed
rises by 0.2m over a distance of 1m.

b) Evaluate the maximum step that the bed can rise for the given
approaching specific energy and discharge.
Data:

Q = 10m
3
/s; b = 5m;

y
1
= 1.25m; Z = 0.2m

Find y
2
and Z
max

The discharge in a rectangular channel is 10m
3
/s, where the channel width
is 5m and the maximum depth is 2m. The normal flow depth is 1.25m.

Page 82 -- 83
Solution (a)
Data:

Q = 10m
3
/s; b = 5m;

y
1
= 1.25m; Z = 0.2m

Find y
2

Neglect frictional losses:
Z E E
s s
A + =
2 1
38 . 1
2
5 25 . 1
10
25 . 1
2
2
2
1
1 1
=
|
.
|

\
|

+ = + =
g g
V
y E
s
where
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2039 . 0
2
5
10
2 y
y
g
y
y
g
V
y E
s
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
2 . 0
2039 . 0
38 . 1
2
2
2
+ + =
y
y
Page 82 -- 83
Solution (a)
Solution corresponding to:
Specific Energy
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00
E (m)
h
(
m
)
m 18 . 1 2 . 0 38 . 1
1 2
= = A = Z E E
s s
y
2
0.9m
Z
Page 83
Solution (a)
y
2
0.9 m is used as the initial estimate in a trial-and-error procedure for:
y
2
(m) E
s2
(m)
0.9 1.15
1.0 1.2
0.96 1.18
* The depth of the raised section is 0.96m or the water level (stage) is
1.16m. There is a drop of 9cm when the bed has raised 20cm.
2
2
2
2039 . 0
18 . 1
y
y + =
Page 83
Solution (b)
Since , the maximum step can be sought when E
s2
has the
minimum value, i.e. when:
Hence:
Z E E
s s
A + =
2 1
0
2
2
=
dy
dE
s
2
2
2 2
2039 . 0
y
y E
s
+ =
0 ) 2 ( 2039 . 0 1
2039 . 0
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

y
dy
y
y d
dy
dE
s
3
2
4078 . 0 1 y =
m 74 . 0 1 4078 . 0
3
2
= = y
m 11 . 1
74 . 0
2039 . 0
74 . 0
2039 . 0
2 2
2
2 min 2
= + = + =
y
y E
s
m 27 . 0 11 . 1 38 . 1
2 1 max
= = = A
s s
E E Z
Page 83
Example
A rectangular channel expands smoothly from a width of 1.5m to 3.0m.
Upstream of the expansion, the depth of the flow is 1.5m and the velocity
of the flow is 2.0m/s. Estimate the depth of the flow after the expansion.
Data:

b
1
= 1.5m; b
2
= 3m; y
1
= 1.5m; V
1
= 2m/s

Find y
2

Solution:

Since there is no change in the elevation of the channel bed, the
upstream specific energy E
s1
is equal to the downstream one E
s2
, or
2 1 s s
E E =
Page 83 -- 84
Example
where
The velocity at the downstream station is:
The two positive solutions are: y
2
= 1.6m, and y
2
= 0.28m.

Right after an expansion of the channel, only a depth that is bigger
than the upstream depth is physically possible, and hence y
2
= 1.6m.
m 7 . 1
81 . 9 2
0 . 2
5 . 1
2
2 2
1
1 1
=

+ = + =
g
V
y E
s
and
g
V
y E
s
2
2
2
2 2
+ =
2 2 2
1 1
2
2
5 . 1
3
5 . 1 5 . 1 2
y y A
A V
A
Q
V =

= = =
And therefore
m 7 . 1
11 . 0
81 . 9 2
5 . 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
= + =

+ = + =
y
y
y
y
g
V
y E
s
0 11 . 0 7 . 1
2
2
3
2
= + y y
or
Page 83 -- 84
Summaries
Know how to derive the energy equation for open channel
flow

Be able to apply the energy equation to solve the problem
of uniform flow interrupted by a smooth hump

Understand the concept of specific energy and be able to
use it to calculate and explain some open channel flow
phenomena, e.g. uniform flow interrupted by a smooth
hump