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S
+ v + v -
N rotor
May oscillate around a desired orientation (resonance at low speeds) Low resolution
Increased Resolution
S
torque
angle
Half stepping
Increased Resolution
S
Half stepping
Increased Resolution
S
Half stepping
How to Control?
4 Lead Wire Configuration Step 0 1 2 3 4 Step Table Red Blue Yellow White + + + + + + + + + + R e d A +
4 m
A B lu e
l e a d o t o r
e ll o w B + B
W -
it e
Clockwise Facing Mounting End Each step, like the second hand of a clock => tick, tick Increase the frequency of the steps => continuous motion
Motoring along...
direct control of position precise positioning (The amount of rotational movement per step depends on the construction of the motor)
Easy to Control
under-damping leads to oscillation at low speeds torque is lower at high speeds than the primary alternative
DC motors -- exposed !
DC motor basics
permanent magnets
N N rotor S stator S
brush
+
V
commutator attached to
DC motor basics
permanent magnets
N N rotor S stator S N
S N
+
V
+
V
DC motor basics
permanent magnets
N N rotor S stator S N
S N
+
V
+
V
+
V
Robotics Sensors
What are sensors? Sensors collect all the information a robot needs to operate and interact with its environment. What are Controllers? Controllers interpret all the input from the sensors and decide how to act in response.
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Robotics Sensors
What are sensors for? The control of a manipulator or industrial robot is based on the correct interpretation of sensory information. This information can be obtained either internally to the robot (for example, joint positions and motor torque) or externally using a wide range of sensors.
Robotics Sensors
Types of Sensors
Since sensors are any device that provide input of data to the robot controller a wide verity of sensors exist. Some basic types of sensors are shown including: Light sensors which measure light intensity. Heat Sensors which measure temperature. Touch sensors which tell the robot when it bumps into something. Ultra Sonic Rangers which tell the robot how far away objects are. And gyroscopes which tell the robot which direction is up.
Robotics Sensors
The bumper skirt on this robot is an example of a touch sensor. When the robot runs into a wall the bumper skirt hits a micro switch which lets the robot controller know that the robot is up against a wall. Other types of touch sensors are used internally to let the robot know when an arm is extended to far and it should be retracted or when the robots other physical limits are reached.
Robotics Sensors
Light sensors are used to detect the presence and Intensity of light. These can be used to make a light seeking robot and are often used to simulate insect intelligence in robots.
Robotics Sensors
Heat sensors help robots determine if they are in danger of overheating. These sensors are often used internally to make sure that the robots electronics do not breakdown.
Robotics Sensors
Ultra Sonic Rangers are used to determine how far a robot is away from an object. They are often used by robots that need to navigate complicated terrain and cannot risk bumping into anything.
Robotics Sensors
Gyroscopes are used in robots that need to maintain balance or are not inherently stable. Gyroscopes are often coupled with powerful robot controllers that have the processing power necessary calculate thousands of physical simulations per second.
Position Sensors
Optical Encoders
Relative position Absolute position
Other Sensors
Resolver Potentiometer
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor decode circuitry
- direction - resolution
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor decode circuitry
mask/diffuser
Ideal
Real
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor decode circuitry
- direction - resolution
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor decode circuitry
- direction - resolution
A B B
A lags B
Optical Encoders
Relative position
light sensor decode circuitry
- direction - resolution
A leads B
Optical Encoders
Detecting absolute position
something simpler ?
Optical Encoders
Detecting absolute position
wires ?
Gray Code
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Binary
0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 among others... 000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100
Other Sensors
Resolver = driving a stepper motor
Robot Sensors
Why do Robots Need Sensors? What can be Sensed? What Sensors are Out There? What can They do? How Much do They Cost? How Easy are They to Use?
Sound
Presence, frequency, intensity, content (mod), direction
Heat
Temperature, wavelength, magnitude, direction
Chemicals
Presence, concentration, identity, etc.
Object Proximity
Presence/absence, distance, bearing, color, etc.
Physical orientation/attitude/position
Magnitude, pitch, roll, yaw, coordinates, etc.
Other Things?
A Closer Look
Sensors Feelers
Whiskers
Piano wire suspended through conductive hoop Deflection causes contact with hoop Springy wire that touches studs when deflected Reaches beyond robot a few inches Simple, cheap, binary output
Feelers - Whiskers
Sensors IR
Active (emitting)
Oscillator generates IR reflections off objects Filtered receiver looks for reflections Pulses may be encoded for better discrimination Typically frequencies around 40KHz Doesnt work well with dark, flat colored objects
Infrared - Active
Passive IR Pyro-Electric
$66 from Acroname Dec 2000, Sept 2001 Encoder
The Model 442-3 IR-EYE is a Lithium Tantalate pyroelectric parallel opposed dual-element high-gain detector with complete integral analog signal processing.
Sensors Ultrasonic
Active
Emit pulses & listen for echos Times round trip sound travel (~1ft/mS) Reaches far fairly beyond robot (inches to 30-50) Relatively simple, not cheap, analog output Directional; not everything reflects sound well
Ultrasonic - Active
Visit http://www.acroname.com for more information about these & other products. Search the web for polaroid ultrasonic sensor
Robot knows location of each beacon Compass on robot provides its orientation
Robot computes distance, measures bearing
Ultrasonic - Passive
Beacon3 Beacon1 Sound Pulse Sound Pulse Light Pulse Robot Sound Pulse BEACON RF Receiver IR Emitter Ultrasonic Emitter ROBOT RF Transmitter IR Receiver Ultrasonic Receiver Light Pulse Beacon2 Light Pulse
Sensors Resistance
Passive (sensor only)
Measures elec. resistance between objects Measure sensor that varies resistance Use absolute or differential readings Other ideas?
Sensors Capacitive
Passive
Really doesnt work (Needs excitation)
Active (emitting)
Generate AC or DC voltage Apply to external environment Measure current to determine Resistance Short range applications
Sensors - Capacitive
Sensors - Capacitive
Emit an electric field below the sensor. Nulled to a known void wall area. Detect capacitance difference due to underlying material density.
Sensors Inductive
Passive
Really doesnt work (Needs excitation)
Active (emitting)
Current flows through inductor Magnetic field mostly ignores non-metals Inductance changes with metallic proximity Short range applications
Sensors - Inductive
Passive
Really doesnt work (Needs excitation)
Active (emitting)
Metals affect sensor Current flows through inductor Magnetic field mostly ignores nonmetals Inductance changes with metallic proximity Short range applications (~cm or mm)
Sensors Visual
Active (emitting)
Camera with field of view illumination Looks for particular reflections Filter removes non-significant light sources Linear array senses single axis of motion
Sensors Visual
CMUCam Linear Optical Array
Sensors Color
Active (emitting)
Selective field illumination (specific color(s)) Sensor filter removes extraneous light sources Output can be analog (prop.) or digital (on/off)
Sensors Color
http://robotroom.com/ColorSensor.html
Sensors Magnetic
Active (emitting)
Metal detectors Follows metallic strips on or under the floor Magnetometer Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Sensors Magnetic
From HowStuffWorks.com & RadiologyInfo.org
Sensors Orientation
Rate Gyros
Output proportional to angular rotation speed Integrate to get position Differentiate to get acceleration
DC Accelerometer
Output proportional to sine of vertical angle
Sensors Motion
Rate Gyro Silicon Sensing Systems Servo Accel Sensorland.com
Sensors Position/Location
Wheel Encoders
Relative position & motion Integrate/Differentiate for other parameters
Wheel Encoders
Nubotics.com, $27 Jun 98, Oct 2000 Encoder
Sensors Position/Location
Parallax.com $80
Track bearing & distance to determine position L: Parallax.com, $30 R: Dinsmoresensors.com, $13-$37
Sensors Voltage
Passive Senses electric field Fluke Electric Field Sensors $23 $25
$24
Sensors Current
Series measurement with Hall Effect device Current loop (coil), then amplified Magnetoresistive (Wheatstone bridge)
Sensors Current
Sensors Current
Sensors Chemical
Passive (sensors only) Active (optical emitter/photo sensor)
Sensors Chemical
Smoke Detectors - Cheap, readily available, $5 Oxygen concentration sensors - CO, H4S, CH4, pricey See HowStuffWorks.com
Sensors Conclusion
Sensors provide a way of simulating aliveness Sensors give robots environmental awareness Sensors provide of means of human protection Sensors help robot preserve itself Sensors enable goal seeking Sensors enable closed-loop interaction Sensors make robots interesting Sensors can make programming challenging
Backup Slides