2

0 1

Clause i

Theorem 9.8

To Begin

Arguably the most important decision in designing an NP-completeness proof is, from which NP-complete problem to start. However, there are no easy rules here. Always start with 3SAT, an extremely versatile problem which can be easily reduced to a surprising range of NP-complete problems. So what does reduction mean?

Reducible Definition We say that language L1 is reducible to L2 if there is a function R from strings to strings computable by a deterministic Tuning machine is Space O(log n) such that for all input x the following is true : x L1 if and only if R(x) L2 . R is called a reduction from L1 to L2.

That problem is NP-complete. We infer a reduction from (3)SAT to that problem Circuit-SAT Cook's Theorem. Circuit-SAT P NP=P

{(c) | c circuit with variables, true assignment c true }

Prerequisite NAESAT is NP-complete (P187)

In 3SAT we are given a set of clause with three literals in each, and we are asked whether there is a truth assignment T such that no clause has all three literals true. 3-SAT {() | = Ck , Ck clause, |Ck|3 , true k=1 assignment true}
n

Based on 3-SAT, in no clause are all three literals equal in truth values, which means NAEST. { truth assignment Ci literals true false} Circuit-SAT Reduce NAESAT. C Circuit :
g7 O g6 v

Circuit-SAT {(c) | c circuit with variables, true assignment c true }

g4 g1 x1 g2

g5

x2

g3

x3

(x1g1) (g1x1) and (x1g1) = (x1 v g1) and (g1x1) = (g1 v x1) So (x1g1) (g1x1) = (x1 v g1) (g1 v x1)

g1x1

g(True) means (g) g(False) means ( g)

Clause literal, false literal , NAESAT. Clause literal

Prerequisite NAESAT is NP-complete (P187) literal Clause

h x1 g2 x 2 g1

g1 g2 h Equal to (g1 g2 h) (h g1 g2) And (g1 g2 h) = (g1 g2) v h = (g1 v g2 v h) -> Has three literals And (h g1 g2) = h v (g1 g2) = (h v g1) ( h v g2) (g1 v g2 v h) = true
g 1 g 2

h F F F

v=(g1 v g2 v h) T T T

T(F) F(T) T(F)

T(F) T(F) F(T)

F(T)
h v
x1 g2 x 2

F(T)

g1 v g2 h We will have a three literals clause : (g1 v g2 v h)

g1 T F T F g2 T T F F
h

g1

v=(g1 v g2 v h) T T T T

F(T) F(T) F(T) T(F)

Circuit-SAT Reduce NAESAT, NAESAT NP-complete!

Theorem 9.8 : 3-COLORING is NPcomplete (P198) that we are asked to color the vertices of a given graph with k colors such Suppose
that no two adjacent nodes have the same color. This classical problem is called kCOLORING. When k=2 it is quite easy to solve. For k=3 , it is 3-COLORING.
1 0 2 0 0 2

3-Coloring : {(G),K : G=(V,E) be an undirected graph there each vertex can be colored in K(0,1,2) and no adjacent vertex has some color.}

Theorem 9.8 3-COLORING is NP-complete Proof: We are given a set of clauses C1,,Cm each with three literals, involving the three variables x1,,xn, and we are asked whether there is a truth assignment on the variables such that no clause has all literals true, or all liter false. We construct a graph G, and argue that it can be colored with colors {0,1,2} if and only if all clauses can take diverse values. Each clauses Ci is represented by a triangle, [Ci1, Ci2, Ci3]. We claim that G can be colored with colors {0,1,2} if and only if the given instance of NAESAT is satisfiable.
Ci2

Ci1

CI3

If Cij takes the color 1 we think that the variable is true, otherwise it is false and takes the color 0.

Theorem 9.8 : 3-COLORING is NPcomplete Theorem (P198) 9.8 3-COLORING is NP-complete

Proof: How can the clause triangles be colored? If all literals in a clause are all true, then the corresponding triangle cannot be colored, since color 1 will be adjacent; so the overall graph is not 3-colorable. Similarly if all literal are false. This completes the proof of one direction.
1 1 2 0

0
2

For the other direction, suppose that a satisfying (in the NAESAT sense) truth assignment exists, we color node a by color 2, and the variable triangles in the way that reflects the truth assignment. And for any clause, we can color the clause triangle as follows: We pick two literals in it with opposite truth values and color the vertices corresponding to them with available color among {0,1}; we then color the third node 2.
X =1 i

Xi=0

a=2

Theorem 9.8 : 3-COLORING is NP-complete

(P198) from NAESAT to 3 Coloring Reduction
Here we tell how this graph is related to NAESAT: Consider below 3SAT. Each variable will be a triangle on the top of graph : (x1 x2 x3) (x1 x2 x3) ( x1 x2 x3) Here we have variables x1, x2 and x3. So we have a initial graph on top. Then we treat each clause as a triangle in the bottom of graph : Connect top of graph with bottom of graph according to the name of variable. Finally, choose a true-assignment make the formula to be true and assign value to each variable on the top of graph. For example, x1=true, x2=false, x3=true. Then the corresponding connected variable in the bottom take the opposite value. Because the formula is NAESAT satisifiable, we can find a value pair in opposite and the third node given a value 2 :
2

x1:1

1:0

x2:0

2:1

3:0

x3:1

Opposite value pair

x1:0

x2:1
x 1:1

2:0

2:0

x3:2

3:2
x 1:1

x3

Extra : 2-Coloring is Polynomial

Bipartite graph : A bipartite graph (or bigraph) is a graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets U and V such that every edge connects a vertex in U to one in V; that is, U and V are independent sets. Equivalently, a bipartite graph is a graph that does not contain any odd-length cycles. Bipartite {(G) | G=(V,U,E) be an undirected graph there exist two disjoint sets U,V of nodes which only connected to the node of the opposite set.}
Testing bipartiteness : If a bipartite graph is connected, its bipartition can be defined by the parity of the distances from any arbitrarily chosen vertex v: one subset consists of the vertices at even distance to v and the other subset consists of the vertices at odd distance to u. Thus, one may efficiently test whether a graph is bipartite by using this parity technique to assign vertices to the two subsets U and V, separately within each connected component of the graph, and then examine each edge to verify that it has endpoints assigned to different subsets.

V = {0,2,4} U = {1,3,5}

Extra : 2-Coloring is Polynomial

Testing Algorithm : Base on the idea from previous slide, we use BFS (Breadth-First Search) which has running time O(V+E) on G(V,E). Consider below graph and the start search vertex is x1. For BFS, the search order would be :
2st round 4st round x5 x2 x6 x1 x3 x7 3st round x3 x9 6st round x8 5st round

1st round

Mapping from Bipartite Graph to 2-Coloring : Based on the introduction on Bipartite, we can regard Bipartite Graph Testing is polynomial problem. So once we treat value{0,1} in Bipartite Graph to be color K{0,1}, we can use the algorithm BFS to verify whether a Graph is 2-Coloring satisfiable which means the 2-Coloring is Polynomial.

Reference

http://www.cs.uky.edu/~lewis/cs-heuristic/text/class/more-np.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_coloring http://www.ic.unicamp.br/~rezende/ensino/mo417/2010s2/notas/16nphard.pdf http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdo c%2F74771574%2FNPComplete&h=JAQFd2bx9AQHfvtHscNUNOAWds2NPGH1vVERHNVkABiPL tg [ ] : - [ ] : [ ] : [ ] :