Carbon and organic molecules

Carbon and its bonds

Polymers and monomers

- Carbohydrates

- Proteins
- Lipids

- Nucleic acids

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Why is carbon so important to molecules of life? A carbon atom forms four covalent bonds

C can make chains or rings

Structural formula

Ball-and-stick model

Space-filling model

Methane

The 4 single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron.

Figure 3.1, top part
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Arrangement of atoms determines molecular shape. Shape determines function of molecules

Methane, CH4
Figure 2.8Bx
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 Butane, ball and stick model

Figure 3.1x3
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What affects solubility in water?

Molecules with +/- charge are usually hydrophilic or water-loving

Molecules with no charge and non-polar are usually hydrophobic and not soluble in water

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How do cells make so many different molecules that are needed for life? Polymers are long chains of smaller molecular units called monomers A huge number of different polymers can be made from a small number of monomers

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CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are a class of molecules

Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, ribose Disaccharides: maltose, sucrose, lactose Polysaccharides: starch, glycogen

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Monosaccharides are single-unit sugars

a multiple of CH2O
fuels for cellular work

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Carbohydrates

PRESS TO PLAY

DISACCHARIDES ANIMATION
Figure 2.12ab

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Why is sugar sweet? Molecules, including non-sugars, taste sweet because they bind to sweet receptors on the tongue

Table 3.6
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disaccharides
Dehydration synthesis

Sucrose

Glucose

Glucose

glucose

fructose

Maltose
Figure 3.5
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Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units

Size: thousands of linked monosaccharides

purpose: energy storage, structural

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 Starch (plants) and glycogen (animals) Cellulose (plants) and chitin (insects, fungi)
Starch granules in potato tuber cells Glucose monomer STARCH

Glycogen granules in muscle tissue

GLYCOGEN

Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall

Cellulose molecules

CELLULOSE

Figure 3.7
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 Starch

Cellulose

= fiber Indigestible by animals

Figure 3.7x
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Lipids include fats, oils, and steroids.

hydrophobic

composed largely of carbon and hydrogen

Purposes: - energy storage - insulation, cushioning - membranes - signals

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 Fats are triglycerides

one glycerol molecule linked to three fatty acids
fatty acid chains often differ

Fatty acid

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 Saturated fats lack double bonds

solid at room temperature (lard)

Fatty acids of unsaturated fats contain double bonds

liquid at room temperature (plant oils)

Trans fats have wrong way double bonds

Figure 3.8C
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Phospholipids
both polar and nonpolar portions
major component of cell membranes

Quic kTim e and a TIFF (Unc ompress ed) decompres sor are needed to s ee this pic ture.

QuickTime and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.

Figure 3.9
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Waxes form waterproof coatings and can prevent organisms from drying out or getting wet

Qui ckTi me and a TIFF (Uncompressed) d eco mpressor are nee ded to se e th is p ictu re .

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Steroids are often hormones

testosterone estrogen

Anabolic steroids Hormone Replacement Therapy

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 Cholesterol
Membranes Precursor to Vitamin D, bile salts

HDL High Density Lipoprotein LDL Low Density Lipoprotein

Figure 3.9x1
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Proteins are essential to the structures and activities of life

Proteins are involved in
cellular structure movement nutrition defense transport
Figure 3.11

communication

Enzymes regulate chemical reactions

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Proteins are the most structurally and functionally diverse of lifes molecules Proteins are made from just 20 kinds of amino acids
Their diversity is based on different arrangements of amino acids

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 Each amino acid contains:

an amino group a carboxyl group an R group, which distinguishes each of the 20 different amino acids

Figure 3.12A

Amino group

Carboxyl (acid) group

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 Each amino acid has specific properties

Leucine (Leu)

Serine (Ser)

Cysteine (Cys)

HYDROPHOBIC

HYDROPHILIC

Figure 3.12B
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 Cells link amino acids together by dehydration synthesis

Peptide bonds

Carboxyl group

Amino group Dehydration synthesis

PEPTIDE BOND

Amino acid
Figure 3.13

Amino acid

Dipeptide

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A proteins specific shape determines its function A protein consists of polypeptide chains folded into a unique shape
shape determines the proteins function A protein loses its function when its polypeptides unravel

Figure 3.14A
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Figure 3.14B

A proteins primary structure is its amino acid sequence Secondary structure is polypeptide coiling or folding produced by hydrogen bonding

Primary structure Amino acid

Secondary structure

Hydrogen bond

Pleated sheet Alpha helix

Figure 3.15, 16
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Tertiary structure is the overall shape of a polypeptide Quaternary structure is the relationship among multiple polypeptides of a protein

Tertiary structure Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin)

Quaternary structure Transthyretin, with four identical polypeptide subunits

Figure 3.17, 18
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Enzymes enable chemical reactions

Glucose

Enzyme (sucrase)

Active site

Substrate (sucrose)

Fructose

1 Enzyme available with empty active site

enzyme is unchanged and can repeat the process

A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction

4
Products are released

3 Substrate is converted to products

Figure 5.6

Substrate binds to enzyme with induced fit

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What can denature a protein?

High temperature
pH, low or high

High salt concentration

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Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides

Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA serve as the blueprints for proteins They ultimately control the life of a cell

DNA sequence is inherited by progeny

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 The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides

Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base

Nitrogenous base (A)

Phosphate group
Figure 3.20A
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Sugar

 The sugar and phosphate form the backbone for the nucleic acid

Nucleotide

Figure 3.20B

Sugar-phosphate backbone

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 DNA consists of two polynucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds

The sequence of the four kinds of nitrogenous bases in DNA carries genetic information

Base pair

Nitrogenous base (A)

Figure 3.20C
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 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Chemical energy used by all cells
Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bond ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels

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How ATP Drives Cellular Work

Figure 2.20
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