The methods developed for control of individual generators and eventually control

of large interconnections play a vital role in modern energy control centers

A generator driven by a steam turbine can be represented as a large rotating mass

with two opposing torques acting on the rotation

Tmech, the mechanical torque, acts to increase rotational speed whereas Telec,
the electrical torque, acts to slow it down

At steady state Tmech and Telec are equal in magnitude and the rotational speed,
, is constant

If the electrical load is increased so that Telec is larger than Tmech, the entire
rotating system begins to slow down

Control action is needed to increase the mechanical torque Tmech to restore

equilibrium

This process must be repeated constantly on a power system because the loads
change constantly

Some means must be provided to allocate load changes to the generators

A series of control systems are connected to the generator units

A governor on each unit maintains its speed

Supplementary control, usually originating at a remote control center, acts to

allocate generation
Automati c Generati on Control (AGC)
2
AGC
Fig.2 Overview of Generation Control Problem
3
AGC
Generator Model
Defining terms

- rotational speed (rad/sec);

= rotational acceleration;

= phase angle of a rotating machine;

Tnet = net accelerating torque in a machine;

Tmech = mechanical torque exerted on the machine by the turbine;

Telec = electrical torque exerted on the machine by the generator;

Pnet = net accelerating power; Pmech = mechanical power input;

Pelec = electrical power output;

I = moment of inertia for the machine

M = angular momentum of the machine

Where all quantities (except phase angle) are in per unit

0 indicates steady state value; ex. 0 is steady state speed (frequency)

4
AGC

I = Tnet

M = I

Pnet = Tnet = I = M = Ms

= t

Pnet = Pmech - Pelec = 0(Tmech - Telec) = Ms

Fig.3 Relationship of mechanical and electrical power and speed
5
AGC
Load Model
Pelec = PL + D
Non-frequency- sensitive Frequency-sensitive
load change load change

D is expressed as percent change in load divided by percent change in

frequency. For example, if load changed by 1.5% for a 1% change in
frequency, then D would equal 1.5. D is expressed in per unit

Fig.4 Block diagrams of rotating mass and loads as seen by prime-mover
output.
6
AGC
Multi-machine generator and Load Model

Frequency is constant over those parts of the network that are

tightly interconnected

Lump the rotating mass of the turbine generators together into an

equivalent that is driven by the sum of the individual turbine
mechanical outputs

Mequiv - equivalent angular momentum of multi-machine

Dequiv equivalent damping coefficient of lumped load

Fig.5 Multi-machine generator load equivalent
7
AGC
Prime mover generator load model

Model for a non-reheat turbine relates the position of the valve that controls emission
of steam into the turbine to the power output of the turbine

TCH = "charging time" time constant

Pvalve = Per unit change in valve position from nominal

Fig.6 Prime mover Generator Load Model.
8
AGC
Governor Model

Load change causes speed change

Governing mechanism senses the machine speed and adjusts the input
valve to change the mechanical power output to compensate for load
changes and restore frequency to nominal value

Modern governors use electronic means to sense speed changes and often
use a combination of electronic, mechanical, and hydraulic means to affect
the required valve position changes
Fig.7 Isochronous Generator
9
AGC
Speed Governor System

Speed Governor: The essential part is centrifugal fly

balls driven directly or through gearing by the turbine
shaft. The mechanism provides upward or downward
vertical movements proportional to the change in
speed.

Linkage mechanism: These are mechanical links for

transforming the fly balls movement to the turbine
valve through a hydraulic amplifier and providing a
feedback from the turbine valve movement.

Hydraulic Amplifier: Very large mechanical forces

are needed to operate the steam valve. Therefore,
the governor movements are transformed into high
power forces via several stages of hydraulic
amplifiers.

Speed changer: The speed changer consists of a

servomotor, which can be operated manually or
automatically for scheduling load at nominal
frequency. By adjusting the set point, a desired load
dispatch can be scheduled at nominal frequency.
Speed Governing System
10
AGC
Governor Control

ref Reference speed

= - ref

KG = Governor gain

To force the frequency error to

zero reset action is provided

Reset action is accomplished by

integrating the frequency (or speed)
error

To run two or more generating units

in parallel on a generating system, the
governors are provided with a feedback
signal that causes the speed error to go
to zero at different values of generator
output

A feedback loop around the integrator

is added
Fig.8 Governor with speed-droop feedback
11
AGC
Governor Transfer Function

R = speed regulation of generator = / P

Fig.9 Block diagram of Governor with droop
12
AGC
Governor Droop Characteristic

Change in electrical load is

compensated by generator
output changes proportional to
each unit's rated output.

Generators share a load

Change at unique frequency
Fig.10 Allocation of unit output with Governor droop
13
AGC
Governor Speed-Changer Setting

By changing the load reference, the generator's governor characteristic can be set to
give reference frequency at any desired unit output

The basic control input to a generating unit is the l oad reference set poi nt

By adjusting this set point on each unit, a desired unit dispatch can be maintained
while holding system frequency close to the desired nominal

Fig.11 Speed-changer settings
14
AGC
Governor, prime mover, generator-load model

PL(s) = PL/s --a step increase in load

(s) = PL(s)

steady state = For many Generators =

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ +
+
+

D Ms sT sT R
D Ms
CH G
1
1
1
)
1
1
(
1
1
1
D R
P
L
+

/ 1 D R R R
P
n
L
+ + +

/ 1 ...... / 1 / 1
2 1
Fig.12 Block diagram of Governor, prime mover and rotating mass
15
AGC
Tie-line Model

Two areas connected by a

Tie-line

Ptie is positive when tie line

power flows from area 1 to 2

Ptie flow = 1(1 - 2)/Xtie

(1 - 2) = change in phase
difference between area 1 & 2

Xtie = tie-line reactance

Ptie flow = T(1 - 2)/s;

where T = 314 x 1/Xtie (50Hz

system)

Fig.13 Block diagram of interconnected areas
16
AGC
Tie-line Power Flow

For constant mechanical powers the

rotating masses and tie line exhibit
damped oscillation for sudden change
in load (PL1) in area 1

At steady state 1 = 2 =
=

Ptie =

A step change in load would

always result in a frequency error

2 1 2 1
1
/ 1 / 1 D D R R
P
L
+ + +

2 1 2 1
2 2 1
/ 1 / 1
) / 1 (
D D R R
D R P
L
+ + +
+
Fig.14 Frequency response to load change
17
AGC
Supplementary Control Action

A load change produces a frequency change with a magnitude that depends on the droop
characteristics of the governor and the frequency characteristics of the system load

A supplementary control must act to restore the frequency to nominal value

This can be accomplished by adding a reset (integral) control to the governor

The supplementary control forces the frequency change to zero by adjustment of the
speed reference set point

Fig.15 Supplementary control added to generating unit
18
AGC
Tie-Line Control

If frequency decreased and net interchange power leaving the system increased, a load
increase has occurred outside the system.

If frequency decreased and net interchange power leaving the system decreased, a load
increase has occurred inside the system.

Pnet int = total actual net interchange

Fig.16 Two-area system
19
AGC
Tie-line Control
Fig.17 Tie-line frequency control actions for two-area system
20
AGC
Tie-line Control

A control area is a part of an interconnected system within which the load and
generation is controlled

A control mechanism that weighs frequency deviation, , and net interchange

power, Pnet int is used

The required change in generation, called the area control error or ACE,
represents the shift in the area's generation required to restore frequency and
net interchange to their desired values

ACE1 = -Pnet int1 B1

ACE2 = -Pnet int2 B2

B1 and B2 are called frequency bias factors

B1 = (1/R1 + D1)

B2 = (1/R2 + D2)

ACE1 = [ ] - (1/R1 + D1) [ ] = PL1

ACE2 = [ ] - (1/R2 + D2) [ ] = 0

2 1 2 1
2 2 1
/ 1 / 1
) / 1 (
D D R R
D R P
L
+ + +
+ +
2 1 2 1
1
/ 1 / 1 D D R R
P
L
+ + +

2 1 2 1
2 2 1
/ 1 / 1
) / 1 (
D D R R
D R P
L
+ + +
+
2 1 2 1
1
/ 1 / 1 D D R R
P
L
+ + +

21
AGC
Tie-line Control
Fig.18 Tie-line bias supplementary control for two areas
22
AGC
Implementation
Implementation of AGC includes

Unit megawatt output for each committed unit.

Megawatt flow over each tie line to neighboring systems.

System frequency

The output of the execution of an AGC program must be transmitted to each of the
generating units

To transmit raise or lower pulses of varying lengths to the unit

Control equipment then changes the unit's load reference set point up or down in
proportion to the pulse length

The "length" of the control pulse may be encoded in the bits of a digital word that is
transmitted over a digital telemetry channel

The Pdes control input is a function of system frequency deviation, net interchange
error, and each unit's deviation from its scheduled economic output.

ACE serves to indicate when total generation must be raised or lowered in a control
area

The individual units may deviate from the economic output as determined by the base
point and participation-factor calculation

The AGC control logic must also be driven by the errors in unit output so as to force
the units to obey the economic dispatch

23
AGC
Implementation
Fig.19 Basic generation control loop
Fig.20 Basic generation control loop via telemetry
24
AGC
Implementation

The sum of the unit output errors is added to ACE to form a composite error
signal that drives the entire control system

An overall control system tries to drive ACE to zero as well as drives each unit's
output to its required economic value

Fig.21 ACE control
25
AGC
Features

The ACE signal should ideally be kept from becoming too large

ACE should not be allowed to drift

The amount of control action called for by the AGC should be kept to a minimum
Fig.22 Overview of AGC logic