Dental Ceramics

dr . Kirti sharma

Introduction to porcelain Definition of ceramics Pottery Feldspar

Quartz Kaolinite Greenware Sintering Fusing

Fluxes Silica Aluminum Oxide

Earthenware Stoneware Porcelain Dental feldspathic porcelain

The basics from pottery to porcelain

Porcelain
Marco polo, 13th century porcelino (italian)- cowrie or venus shell

Meaning little pig

Shells thinness, translucency, hardness.

To quote a tenth century European reflecting on the porcelain he encountered on his journey through China: "A ceramic so white that it was comparable only to snow, so strong that vessels needed walls only 2-3 mm thick and consequently light could shine through it. So continuous was the internal structure that a dish, if lightly struck would ring like a bell. This is porcelain!"

covers various materials hard, brittle, non metallic, heat-resistant and corrosionresistant.

Derived from: the Greek word keramos meaning potters clay/ burnt stuff.

Ceramics \sa-ram#iks\ n

1: Compounds of one or more metals with a nonmetallic element, usually oxygen. They are formed of chemical and biochemical stable substances that are strong, hard, brittle, and inert non-conductors of thermal and electrical energy. 2: The art of making porcelain dental restorations.

Shaping and then firing a nonmetallic mineral, such as clay, at a high temperature. The non metallic minerals: aluminum oxide (alumina) and silicone dioxide (silica).

Refractory non-meltable skeletal structure sintered (fused) particles of a metallic oxide (aluminum oxide). Glass infiltrated between the sintered refractory particles.

Pottery was the first, and still is the foremost ceramic. Pottery is made from clay, and contains both of these components.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The first ceramics were created sometime before 5500 BC in the form of earthenware pottery. CLAY (with water->too sticky to handle) SAND and GROUND SEASHELLS Kiln Firing/sintering

Gases-VOIDSin CLAYfracture during FIRING BEATING ( WEDGING ) and raising the temperature very slowly.

Greenware

Before firing, the "ceramic" body is in a very fragile green state, and at this stage is called greenware. In its green state, the body has not yet actually been converted into a ceramic. A fragile pile of microscopic rocks. When totally dry, the greenware/unfired body placed into a kiln for a low temperature firing known as a biscuit bake. During this low fire process, little if any feldspathic glass is produced.

mass of individual particles loosely held together by a water binder

Called Sintering

coherent solid the points at which the individual particles are in contact fuse at sufficiently high temperatures

Sintering appears to happen not so much because of melting, but because of diffusion of the rapidly moving atoms between the neighboring refractory particles.

Diffusion is accelerated at elevated temperatures.

Once biscuit fired-> ceramic easily handled; not yet fully fired; most of the feldspar still in crystalline state. Apply glaze coat over it ( highly fluxed silica) and fired to a higher temperature. Glaze and feldspar melt to form a glass. This second firing is called glaze firing or fusing firing.

UP-DRAUGHT KILN EARLY KILNS---900 C---pottery fired at this temperature is known as EARTHENWARE. (low temperature firing, porous, opaque, unsuitable for storing liquids)

higher kiln temperatures---impervious pottery--STONEWARE.

Europeans produced-> stoneware.could be made to look white, but in a thickness that it was invariably opaque. Chinese produced-> porcelain.white and made in such thin sections that it appeared translucent. In1717, the secret was leaked from China by a Jesuit missionary, Father dEntercolles-kaolin, silica and feldspar.

Clay bodies : earthenware, stoneware and domestic porcelain.

Glass

Alumina

Dental porcelain is a further subdivision of domestic porcelain. It is impossible to understand dental porcelains and their associated cores without first understanding the art and science of ceramics, and this begins at the potters wheel.

Clay is a specialized form of mud. Clay requires three specific constituents to qualify as a good ceramic medium feldspar, quartz and kaolinite.

Water - reduces the friction between the clay particles - lends the clay plasticity so that it can easily be formed into shape by hand

Plasticity

Minerals eg.ball clay or bentonite Increase the surface area available to retain water

(NOTE: Manufacturers of dental porcelain frits add sugar and starch to their porcelain powders for the same reason.)

Porcelain is defined as a: fine kind of earthernware having a translucent body and a transparent glaze. Blending of clay with other common minerals such as feldspar, flint (silica) and firing them at high temperatures produced translucency and strength. Ceramic materials containing these additional important ingredients were given the name Porcelain.

Dental porcelain belongs to one class of ceramics

Consists of a glass and a crystalline phase ( glass-crystal composite) Other ceramics are composed entirely of crystalline oxides that are sintered together, sometimes under high pressure.

Dental porcelain:
Kaolin omitted; feldspar translucency.

Hence considered as a feldspathic glass with crystalline inclusions of silica.

The dental application of porcelain dates from 1774,when a French apothecary named Alexis Duchateau considered the possibility of replacing his ivory dentures with porcelain

The use of porcelain in dentistry was first mentioned by Pierre Fauchard

1789 Fused porcelain was introduced for manufacture of teeth. By 1820 Porcelain denture teeth were introduced, which replaced ivory/ natural denture teeth in U.S.A.. 1837 John Murphy of London introduced the plantium foil technique which made possible the development of present day method of porcelain inlay construction.

1838 Elias Wildman formulated translucent porcelain. 1887 Dr C. H. Land of Detroit developed the first all-porcelain jacket crown (PJC) using the Platinum Foil Matrix technique.

1889 Dr. Charles H. Land patented the Platinum Foil Matrix technique for PJC.
1903 E. B. Spaulding developed gingival shoulder porcelain for the PJC.

1930 Frederick Gardner of the Steuben division of Corning Glass Works developed the LostWax or cire-perdue method (Taggarts method of 1907 ) of forming three dimensional glass articles. 1962 - incorporation of a high proportion of leucite crystals into the feldspathic porcelain composition.
1965 Mc Lean & Hughes used glass- alumina composite instead of feldspar porcelain resulting in stronger restorations.

1970 Southan first demonstrated the application of ion exchange strengthening to dental porcelain. 1983 - First dental CAD/CAM prototype was presented in France.

1997 IPS Empress Cosmo Ingot (Ivoclar) , a glass-ceramic material that can be heat pressed directly onto zirconia posts (eg; Cosmopost) was introduced . 1999 IPS SIGN (Ivoclar AG), a feldsparfree fluorapatite glass ceramic system for use in metal-ceramics was presented.

1985 Hobo & Kyocera (Biocream group ) developed a castable glass-ceramic which melts at 14600C and flows like molten glass.
1986 The first generation CEREC 1 (Siemens) CAD/CAM system was introduced. 1988 Michael Sadoun first introduced Inceram, a glass-infiltrated aluminous porcelain.

Early 1990s - The Golden Gate System, a combination of Degunorm (Degussa), a high gold alloy with Duceragold (Ducera), a low fusing hydrothermal ceramic was introduced for metalceramic restorations.
1993 The Procera CAD/CAM developed by Andersson M. & Oden system was

1994 The second generation CEREC 2 (Siemens/Sirona) CAD/CAM System was presented.

Late 1990s IPS Empress 2, a second generation pressable ceramic made from lithium-disilicate frame work with an apatite layered ceramic was introduced.

CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

According to application (By R.W. Phillips, 1982, Skinners 8th edition) For porcelain teeth ( denture) For Ceramo-metal restorations (Metal-Ceramic Systems) For All-ceramic restorations (All-Ceramic System)

Classes of Dental Ceramics for Fixed Prosthetics (By K.J. Anusavice, 1996, Phillips 10Th edition).
There are several categories of dental ceramics: conventional leucite-containing porcelain, leucite-enriched porcelain that may contain leucite, glass-ceramic, specialized core ceramic (alumina, glass-infiltrated alumina, magnesia, and spinel), and CAD-CAM ceramics.

Dental ceramics can be classified By type : feldspathic porcelain, leucitereinforced porcelain, aluminous porcelain, alumina, glass-infiltrated alumina, glassinfiltrated spinel and glass-ceramic By use : denture teeth, metal-ceramics, veneers, inlays, crowns and anterior bridges By processing methods : sintering, casting or machining By substructure material : cast metal, swaged metal, glass-ceramic, CAD-CAM porcelain or sintered ceramic core.

Methods of fabricating ceramic restorations include : condensation and sintering, pressure moulding and sintering, casting and ceramming, slip casting, sintering and glassinfiltration, milling by computer control.

Dental porcelains are classified according to the firing temperatures as: High fusing Medium fusing Low fusing Ultra-low fusing 1300C (2372F) 1101 1300C (2013 2072 F) 850 1100C (1962 2012F) <850C (1562F)

The medium-fusing and high-fusing types are used for the production of denture teeth. The low-fusing and ultralow fusing porcelains are used for crown and bridge construction.

Some of the ultra-low fusing porcelains are used for titanium and titanium alloys
(low-contraction coefficients that closely match those of the metals reduced risk for growth of the metal oxide).

However, some of these ultra-low fusing porcelains contain enough leucite to raise their thermal contraction coefficients as high as conventional low-fusing porcelains.

According To Use

METAL CERAMIC SYSTEMS :

1) 2) Cast metal systems : eg: Vita Metall Keramik (VMK 95) Non- Cast Metal Systems (Foil Crown Systems)

ALL CERAMIC SYSTEMS : Classified according to method of fabrication (Marc Rosenblum & Alan Schulman A Review of All-Ceramic Restorations. JADA Mar1997).

Classified according to method of fabrication (Marc Rosenblum & Alan Schulman A Review of All-Ceramic Restorations. JADA Mar1997).

1) Conventional Powder Slurry Ceramics : using condensing

& sintering.
(a) Alumina reinforced Porcelain (b) Magnesia reinforced Porcelain e.g. : Hi-Ceram e.g.: Magnesia cores

(c) Leucite reinforced (High strength porcelain) e.g. : Optec HSP

(d) Zirconia whisker fibre reinforced (e) Low fusing ceramics (LFC): e.g.:MirageII (Myron Int)

(i) Hydrothermal LFC e.g.: Duceram LFC : (ii) Finesse (Ceramco Inc)

2) Castable Ceramics : Using casting & ceramming 1) Flouromicas e.g: Dicor

2)

Apatite based Glass-Ceramics e.g Cera Pearl

3) Other Glass-Ceramics e.g: Lithia based, Calcium phosphate based

3) Machinable Ceramics : digital control

Milling machining by mechanical

A) Analogous Systems (Pantograph systems copying methods)

1)Copy milling / grinding techniques :

a) Mechanical e.g. : Celay

b)Automatic e.g:Ceramatic II. DCP

2)Erosive techniques :

a) Sono-erosion e.g: DFE, Erosonic b) Spark-erosion e.g: DFE, Procera

B) Digital systems (CAD / CAM):

1) Direct e.g: Cerec 1 & Cerec 2 2) Indirect e.g : Cicero, Denti CAD, Automill, DCS-President

4) Pressable Ceramics : by pressure molding & sintering 1) Shrink-Free Alumina Reinforced Ceramic (Injection Molded) E.g. : Cerestore / Alceram 2) Leucite Reinforced Ceramic (Heat Transfer Molded)

E.g.: IPS Empress, IPS Empress 2, Optec OPC.

5) Infiltrated Ceramics : by slip-casting, sintering & glass infiltration

1) Alumina based
2) Spinel based 3) Zirconia based

e.g: In-Ceram Alumina

e.g: In-Ceram Spinel e.g.: In-Ceram Zirconia

According to microstructure:
1) Non-Crystalline Ceramics e.g.: Feldspathic porcelain 2) Crystalline Ceramics e.g.: Aluminous porcelain,

Glass- Ceramics
According to application: 1) Core porcelain

2) Body porcelain
3) Enamel porcelain According to method of firing: 1) Air fired (i.e, at atmospheric pressure) 2) Vacuum fired (i.e, below atmospheric pressure)

Feldspar Quartz Kaolin

Feldspar : naturally occurring crystalline rocks. Devitrification (cooled very slowly) vitrification formation of glass devitrification formation of crystals really just naturally devitrified glass

There are twelve naturally occurring types of feldspar (and numerous combinations). Their formulas are all similar :

Al2O3 in this form does not affect the translucency. Si also exists in 2 forms: - as a part of feldspar (glass former ) - as crystalline quartz scattered throughout the glass

Feldspars are naturally occurring substances, so the ratio between the potash (K2O) and the soda (Na2O) will vary somewhat.

This affects the properties of the feldspar:

soda tends to lower the fusion temperature potash increases the viscosity of the molten glass.

During the firing of porcelain there is always the danger of excessive pyroplastic flow, which may result in rounding of the edges and loss of tooth form.
It is important that the correct amount of potash is present to prevent this.

The Na2O, K2O and CaO in the above formulas are used as fluxes.

fluxes cause crystalline structures to melt at lower temperatures than would otherwise be possible, a bit like water melts a cube of sugar at room temperature. Without fluxes present, none of the other constituents in the ceramic body would be able to melt at normally attainable temperatures.

Feldspars melt at about 1150 degrees C. Incongruent melting (Anusavice) (1150-1530 C) Liquid glass phase + Crystalline Leucite (KAlSi2O6/K2O.Al2O3.4SiO2)

softens and flows slightly allowing the porcelain powder particles to coalesce together forms a translucent glassy matrix between the other components in the dense solid.

exploited to advantage in the manufacture of porcelain suitable for metal bonding.

Leucite
High coefficient of

thermal expansion and elasticity.

It affects the optical

properties, strength and hardness of the porcelain.

Leucite containing

porcelains tend to wear opposing tooth structure by

Binder, increasing the ability to mould the unfired porcelain.

It is opaque, even in very small quantities

Thus, for dental porcelains the kaolin was omitted

 Pure form called kaolin (china clay) KaolinChinese term for high ridge.place where
it was first found.

Chemical formula :

Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O (hydrated aluminium silicate)

Crystalline structure.

Upper AL2O3Gibbsite layer

Silica layer

Crystalline slabs stacked one on top of the other

Strong bond to silica layer via shared oxygen atoms

Weak hydroxyl bonds with adjacent gibbsite layer

(Compression)

(shear)

Crystalline structurevertical stack of hexagonal plates. Can support Compression but not shear.

Kaolinitecontd

When the temperature reaches the fusion temperature of feldspar..OH groups in the silica layer of kaolin combine with the H group of the adjacent gibbsite layer.H2O formed (volatilizes) Bonds between the gibbsite and silica layer destabilized, allowing silica and aluminium oxide to react separately.

The flux from the feldspar prevents the free silica to form stable crystals. Instead, an amorphous glass is formed.

Feldspar
Flux Glass from kaolin.

Kaolinitecontd

The leftover gibbsite layer which has lost its hydrogen atom becomes refractory crystalline aluminum oxide, also known as alumina.

Not all of the kaolinite will melt and quite a bit of the original kaolinite remains behind as plate-like crystalline inclusions in the glass gel matrix.

Therefore, when the clay body melts at high temperature, it consists of the following constituents:

Feldspathic glass formed from the melting of the feldspar Glass from the kaolinite--- the debonded silica layer from the melted kaolinite Refractory Alumina crystals---the debonded gibbsite layer from the melted kaolinite Refractory kaolinite particles in the form of flat plates Refractory Quartz particles

Glass Phase

The two major components of ceramics

Refractory crystalline structure

Glass matrix

All glass formulations have three things in common:

Glass formers fluxes and stabilizers (also known as modifiers).

The most common glass former is silicone dioxide (SiO2), also known as silica

It is also the glass former found in most feldspars.

Feldspars account for the glassy phase in dental porcelain. Silica is also the basis of the glazes

Oxides Of

Boron (small amounts,5-15%...tough and

heat resistant glass)

Phosphorous

Antimony Arsenic Germanium Selenium.

Chemical formula of SiO2

Forms tetrahedral crystalline structures

The tetrahedrons are bonded together via shared oxygen atoms at each apex of the tetrahedron.
This describes crystalline silica. Difference between glasses and crystals.

Silicone

SiO4 lattice network

6-sided quartz crystals

Red-O2 Bluesilicone

Highly directional covalent bonds. Hence, an orderly lattice representative of quartz crystals results.

glasses

crystals

The addition of alkaline metallic oxides in the form of fluxes can cause the ordered crystalline structure of quartz to become disordered, as it does in feldspar glasses.

This is the basis of glass formation

It has a very high fusion temperature (> 16850 C).

provides a framework for other ingredients and helps retain the shape during firing.

filler - to provide strength.

The quartz may be replaced by alumina (Al2O3)aluminous porcelain

Alumina much stronger and rigid than quartz.

Alkaline metallic oxides that lower the melting point of the glass former.
The most commonly used fluxes are sodium oxide-Na2O (soda) and potassium oxide--K2O (potash). Actually introduced as carbonates heating oxide forms.

Increased amounts of oxides devitrification clouding.

Functions: a) reduce the softening temperature b) increase the thermal expansion c) reduce the viscosity

Disruption of silica tetrahedron lattice

Fluxes disrupt the covalent bonds that bind the silicone and the oxygen atoms together

Green-Na+

Light blue-O2-

Make the glass strong and water resistant.

Dissolve as the glass melts, so they do not add opacity to the glass. Examples: Calcium oxide most common Aluminium oxide strength also Boron oxide Lead oxide

Not an intentional addition. important glass modifier.

The hydronium ion, H3O can replace Na+ or other metal ions in a ceramic that contains glass modifiers. - slow crack growth of ceramics exposed to tensile stresses and stored in moist environment.

 Pure silica (quartz)melted cooled relatively

quickly pure fused silica glass formed

Very high melting temperature.

Properties superior to any of the other forms of

glass.

Insoluble in water because it lacks alkaline flux

molecules.

Most heat resistant of all glasses and can sustain

temperatures of 1200 degrees centigrade.

Increase the hardness and viscosity.

Prevent the slump of porcelains during firing. Eg. Aluminium oxide usually added to the melt in the form of its hydroxide.

Flux + glass former Critical value < 12%

Boron Anomaly:

< 12% BO4 tetrahedra forms a twin lattice with SiO4 more stable glass produced. >12% BO3 triangles formed less stable glass.

Diagram showing the formation of alumino-silicate glass.

Stability of glass depends on SiO4 lattice and its covalent bonds.

Hence, an average dental porcelain will contain a minimum of 60% of SiO2.

Glass formers: SiO269.4 wt% B2O3.7.5 wt%

Glass modifiers: CaO.1.9 wt%

Na2O4.8 wt% K2O.8.3 wt%

Intermediate oxides: Al2O3.8.1%

Li2Oas an additional flux.

- Risks.increased pyroplastic flow increased devitrification

MgO Phosphorous pentoxide - opalescence -sometimes glass forming.

Syenite: - igneous, granular rock - high in feldspar - little or no quartz.

Tried as a replacement for feldspar. Not used anymore because of increased pyroplasticity

Manufacturers fluxed porcelain with limited degree of fusion and pyrochemical reaction.
So, a part of feldspar remains un-dissolved Differences in the refractive indices final glass frit may appear opalescent or exhibit grey-blue translucency similar to incisal enamel. Major color problem slight greenish hue (all glasses)

Reduce the greenish hue inherent in all glasses.

Heat resistant pigments used (metallic oxides).

Pink chromium tin or chrome alumina--warm tone.

Yellow indium or praesodymium most stable; ivory shade.

Grey iron oxide or platinum grey enamel shades

addition to the greyer sections of dentin color.

oxides of iron.brown color

copper oxide green color

titanium oxide yellowish brown color

cobalt oxideblue color (some enamel shades) Manganese oxide lavender color

Metal oxides Zirconium (most popular), cerium, titanium and tin oxides Ground to a very fine particle size < 5m Prevent speckled appearance.

Why add them?? Porcelain is translucent. Need to stimulate the underlying dentin.

Size and volume distribution of the particles various wavelengths of light scattered differently by the particles.

Difference in the refractive indices between the glass and the opacifier.

Color modifiers gingival effects. highlight body colors.

Stains more concentrated uses surface colorants - provide enamel check lines/ decalcification spots etc.

Natural teeth lamps in dance halls fluoresce a bluish-white color simulated in porcelain too.
Uranium salt highly radioactive hence banned. Rare earth oxides samarium Spinels } } not as effective as uranium.

Newer porcelain materials recently introduced are highly fluorescent and are described as optical brighteners E.g : Luminaries (Vita, Bad Sackingen, Germany) contain naturally occurring fluorescent agents that are non-toxic.

Glazes: Function: - Seal the open pores in the surface of a fired porcelain Uncolored glass powders Glossy surface. Fusion temperature to be < that of the restoration. cTE < ceramic body glaze placed under compression crazing or peeling of surface avoided.

Why is a Self glaze preferred??

Increases the chemical durability ( increased resistance to corrosion, acid attack, etc.)

Made from the same material as the glaze; colouring agents and opacifiers added

Used sparingly simple corrections of tooth contour or contact points.

Difficult to apply evenly. Produce too high a gloss or a rough surface impossible to obtain detailed surface characterization

1) Silica Filler 2) Kaolin (China clay) Binder 3) Feldspar Basic glass former 4) Nepheline Syenite & Leucite 5)Water Important glass modifier 6) Fluxes Glass modifiers 7) Color pigments

8) Opacifying agents 9)Stains and colour modifiers 10) Fluorescent agents 11) Glazes and Add-on porcelain 12) Alumina 13) Alternative Additives to Porcelain

MANUFACTURE
& DISPENSING

Manufacture of porcelain:
Pyrochemical reactions : water of crystallization is lost

the flux reacts with the outer layers of the grains of silica (filler), kaolin (binder) and feldspar (basic glass former) and partly combines them together.
The feldspar fuses and further intermingles with kaolin & quartz.

The feldspar undergoes incongruent melting.

The molten glass begins to dissolve the kaolin and quartz. Continuous heating results in total dissolution of all components forming a homogenous glass.

Final glass product frit.

Molten glass quenched in water internal stressesbreaks into fragments called frit. Blending + melting + quenching = fritting.

The resultant frit is a brittle structure

Readily ground to a fine powder form Powder particles form a very viscous liquid when re-fired flows together and particles coalesce/sintered.

Supplied as a kit containing :

Fine ceramic powders in different shades of enamel, dentin, core/opaque Special liquid or distilled water- binder Stains and colour modifiers Glazes and Add-on porcelains.

STEPS IN FABRICATION

Various methods of fabrication:

Condensing and Sintering, Pressure molding & Sintering, Casting & Ceramming, Slip casting, Sintering & Glass infiltration Milling (Machining) by mechanical and digital systems.

Fabrication of a conventional porcelain restoration is basically composed of the following stages: Condensation Sintering Glazing Cooling.

CONDENSATION OF DENTAL PORCELAIN

Shrinkage after sintering dependent on porosity of the powder bed after condensation and shaping of the tooth form. Porosity governed by: a) condensation technique b) original packing density of the powder.

Size of the particles

Shape of the particles

Size of the particles: Irregular particle system larger voids filled with Obtained by smaller particles.

Gap-grading system 3 sizes of particles used. (suitable for vacuum firing)

2) Shape of the particles

Rounded particles by dry grinding pack better than angular particles obtained by wet ground powder.

Porcelain powder is built into shape using a liquid binder to hold the particles together.

The process of packing the particles together and removing the liquid binder is known as condensation.

 Vibration

Spatulation
Brush technique

Mild vibration to pack the wet powder densely on the underlying framework . The excess water is blotted or wiped away with clean tissue or brush ,and condensation occurs.

A small spatula is used to apply and smooth the wet porcelain . Smoothening action brings the excess water to the surface , where it is removed .

Employs the addition of dry porcelain powder to the surface to absorb the water.
The dry powder is placed by a brush to the side opposite from an increment of wet porcelain .

As the water is drawn towards the dry powder , the wet particles are pulled together.

Distilled water most commonly used, especially for dentin / enamel porcelain Propylene glycol used in alumina core build-up
Alcohol or formaldehyde based liquids used for opaque core build up Proprietary modeling fluids Paint-on liquids for stain application.

Condensation

It is a 2-part process Agitation of the particles & Removal of excess moisture.

Repetitious carried out alternately until no further moisture comes to the surface.

The movement of the particles by: - Vibration, - Spatulation - Whipping.

A working model / die of the prepared tooth is used for condensation of porcelain. A matrix is used to support the unfired porcelain both during condensation and firing.
Restoration E.g. Matrix used

All-ceramic

PJC

Platinum foil adapted on the die to form a matrix

Metal-ceramic

PFM

Metal coping of suitable design and alloy type

(For inlay / onlay restorations, ceramics are fired on refractory dies)

Mixing: Dry porcelain powder is mixed with the binder on a glass slab using bone or nylon spatula (or glass mixing rod) into a thick creamy mix, which can be carried in small increments with an instrument or brush.

The instruments used can vary from fine bladed spatulas and carving points to fine sable hair brushes of varying thickness.

Sable hair brushes more efficient:

A wet brush maintains the moisture content in porcelain while the metal spatulas cause more rapid drying out

Apply enamel colours or stains without changing instruments.

Greater control over applying small increments of porcelain

Greater detail in surface characterization Greater delicacy in blending of enamel veneers.

Instruments

The build-up brush: (sable hair no. 6)

Most versatile

Foldable and a removable cap ensures that moisture can be maintained for several hours. This maintains the flame-shape and density also.

Fine tip for precise and delicate additions

Sharp and dense point aids in shaping the occlusal surfaces and re-contouring fissures.

Soft and flexible Cervicoincisal direction Direct, realign or highlight the axial
morphol ogy

High density and maximum water retention. Blend a very small addition to the build up by surface tension without dehydration Occlusal additions and grooving.

Opaque manipulation

various sizes

Fine: Emphasize fine embrasure space with surface colorant. Extra fine:

Very short and very rigid.

To highlight the inner aspects of occlusal pits.

Flat, fine, square point. Lateral segmentation Create illusion of enamel cracks.

Brush for enamel crack to stain a defined area.

Fabricating porcelain margins Cleaning occlusal surfaces Stroke always in the direction of the fissures.

Ordinary medical ampule Smooth, rounded and bent end Apply opaque porcelain without any water.

Gross axial outlines, all labial and incisal cutbacks carved in overlapping sweeping strokes.

Emphasize primary and accessory occlusal grooves.

Trenches in powderirrigation and wetting.

Creamy mix

Porcelain build up brush at 45 angle between the glass plate and the mix. The length of its penetration controls the size of the bead to be picked up.

Small amplitude
Freq- 20,000-28,000Hz Good packing density without intermixing of built in colors or distortion of the entire build up.

Regular cotton pliers adjusted at each end with two additional bends

Hold a casting from its internal aspect eg. Carrying the unfired crown to the firing tray.

Reservoir of distilled water underneath the glass slab.

Maintains a certain degree of moisture essential for dental porcelain processing.

Condensation- unfired porcelain particles packed together.

Translucency directly related to residual air content. Maximum packing density: increased translucency. low firing shrinkage.

Increased porosity due to: Insufficient saturation of the mix Over stirring of powder in the liquid binder Addition of too large amounts at once Dehydration and frequent remoistening Addition to an already dried zone

Paper tissue Initial support to control axial direction of build up. Absorb excess moisture.

Moisture control through building technique - Brush preferred to spatula. - Body as a water reservoir - Tip constantly moved in a vibrating, tapping motion (activate water at the surface; facilitate addition)

Moisture control through build up sequencing Large additions- increased air entrapment

Build up started at cervix.

Used as a base.

Additions proceed alongside and between the lobes, finally filling in the whole surface.

The construction must proceed to a different area through a progression of proximal and occlusal ridges until another trilobed support is created by continuity..draws moisture and allows the lobes to be developed against one another until they reach the other aspect of the crown.

It is best to accomplish construction by proceeding back and forth, from one abutment to the next, until some evaporation takes place.

Moisture control and working time

Distilled water- ideal binder (leaves no contaminating residues on burnout)

Prolongation of working time: distilled water + modeling fluid { plasticity also ed } ( 8 parts) (1 part)

On completion of all constructions, water must still constitute 30% to 40 % of the porcelain body weight.

Pre-heating the furnace

The green porcelain is placed into the hot zone of the furnace and the firing cycle is initiated.

Glaze: At the end of high bisque stage, if the porcelain is held in the furnace for a greater length of time, the surface porcelain would undergo pyroplastic flow, i.e. the matte surface would disappear and a smooth shiny surface would result (self-glaze; depth of 100um) .

Condensed porcelain mass is placed in front of or below the muffle. Permits the remaining water vapor to dissipate . Placement of the condensed mass directly into even a moderately warm furnace
rapid production of steam voids or fracture of large sections of the porcelain mass .

Firing 3 stages of maturity:

a) low- bisque b) medium- bisque

c) high - bisque

The common expression used for describing the surface appearance of un-glazed porcelain is bisque or biscuit since this gives a fairly accurate picture of its surface texture.

Surface very porous Grains start to soften and lense at their contact point Shrinkage minimal Air spaces are irregular Fired body is extremely weak and friable Opaque

Medium bisque

Surface still slightly

porous Flow of glass grains have increased Remaining air entrapped and sphere shaped. A definite shrinkage will occur less opaque Translucency

 Surface is completely

sealed , much smoother with slight shine

Shrinkage complete

High strength achieved

Color and

translucency ++

In the Preheating stage at the initial firing temperature, voids (original air spaces left after condensation) are occupied by the atmosphere (air) of the furnace.

In the Sintering Stage at maturing temperature recommended by manufacturer, the air porosity tries to escape via the grain boundaries of the glass powder by the action of surface tension.

There will always be some porosity in the porcelain, with small voids being exposed at the surface.

To avoid this, the surface is glazed to produce a smooth, shiny and impervious outer layer.

Internal staining and application of characterized stains:Advantage- The effect is permanent and can produce lifelike results e.g: simulated enamel craze lines. Disadvantage : Porcelain must be stripped completely if the colour or characterization is unsuitable.

Advantages over air-fired porcelains: Improved esthetics

Better handling properties

Reduced porosity

Diffusible Gas-Firing Process :- This is an alternative technique for producing high densities in dental porcelain in which a diffusible gas (He, H2, or steam) is substituted for the ordinary furnace atmosphere.

Ceramic Furnaces :

Horizontal Muffle e.g. : Vita-Caccumat S

De Try Biodent Systomat, Unitek Ultra-Mat Furnace,

Rapid Cycle furnace (Doxc Euromat).

 Vertically mounted muffle

Cylindrical better heat distribution than horizontal muffles. 2 muffles : a) pre-heating b) vacuum firing.

 Fully automatic

Term does not mean quick firing;

Heat is brought to the porcelain and not the porcelain to the heat. Work to be fired inserted from the top of the furnace assists viewing. No moving parts.

In Vacuum fired porcelain

Air is removed from the interstitial spaces before sealing of the surface occurs. ( not all the air is removed ). The residual air becomes sphere-shaped under the influence of surface tension and increased furnace temperature. When air at normal atmosphere pressure is once again allowed to enter the furnace muffle Hydraulically compresses internal bubbles. Relatively dense pore-free porcelain

Limitation of vacuum firing:

Large bubbles trapped due to poor condensation technique cannot be reduced in size to any significant degree and can be seen as blistering of the material.

Thermal shock is more severe while reheating or glazing than while cooling. Thorough pre-heat

Insert the crown very slowly into the hot zone of the furnace.
Cool the crown at the muffle entrance. Do not cool it rapidly. Maintain an even thickness of porcelain over the metal or core porcelain balance out discrepancies in thermal diffusivity.

PROPERTIES OF DENTAL CERAMICS

Desirable Properties

Good esthetic qualities

High hardness High compressive strength Good chemical durability Excellent biocompatibility

Brittleness
Low fracture toughness Low tensile strength susceptible to fracture during placement, mastication and trauma

Color Stability

Ceramics most stable tooth colored materials:

a) Metallic oxides (colorants) dont undergo any changes after firing. b) Smooth glossy surface resists exogenous stains.

What is brittleness?
What is it attributed to? Brittle structures have low tensile and high compressive strengths.

Brittle fracture

Plastic deformation

Natural tooth - 343 KHN

Porcelain 460 KHN

Hence, it causes wearing of natural tooth and metal restorations. (particularly if porcelain is not glazed properly).

Porcelain has a coefficient of thermal expansion , slightly less than that of the tooth structure .
It does not exhibit micro leakage and is comparable to a cemented metal restoration . It also does not imbibe or synergize water .

Volumetric shrinkage 35 45 % Linear shrinkage 11 14 % Minimized by: a) Using lesser binder b) Proper condensation c) Buildup of restoration 1/3rd larger than original size d) Firing in successive stages.

Generally resistant to degradation in the oral environment

Susceptible to : a) mechanical degradation by brittle fracture (chipping) b) chemical degradation by fluoride attack

Strength

Theoretical strength is dependent upon the siliconeoxygen bond.

The practical strength is 10 to 1000 times less than the nominal strengths. Attributed to the phenomenon of stress concentration around surface flaws (microcracks).

Stress applied

Pre-existing internal microcracks formed due to tensile stresses during cooling.

The stress on the crown concentrates the strain at the pre-existing internal microcracks causing one of them to fracture.

The condensation, melting and sintering process. The high contact angle of ceramics on metal. Differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion between alloy or core and veneers.

Grinding and abrasion.

Tensile stresses during manufacture , function and trauma.

Methods of Strengthening The Ceramics

The critical strain of dental ceramic is low.

(the materials can withstand a deformation of approximately 0.1% before fracture ) So, cracks propagate at low average stress levels. (ceramics and glasses have tensile strengths that are much lower than their compressive strengths).

oral environment bending forces Tensile stresses (cause fracture) maximum at the surface of a prosthesis

According to K. J. Anusavice (Phillips Science of Dental Materials, 11th edition)

I. Development of residual compressive stresses Ion exchange (Chemical tempering) Thermal tempering Thermal compatibility (Thermal expansion coefficient mismatch) II. Interruption of crack propagation Dispersion of crystalline phase Transformation toughening

III. Others

Minimize the effect of stress raisers Minimize the number of firing cycles Minimize the tensile stresses through optimal design of ceramic prostheses.

1. Ion exchange

Na+ containing glass article placed in a bath of molten KNO3 K+ and Na+ exchange.

K + 35% larger than Na+ squeeze into the place formerly occupied by Na+ very large residual compressive stresses.

BEFORE ION EXCHANGE

AFTER ION EXCHANGE

E.g. GC Tuf coat (GC Corp) potassium-rich slurry applied on the ceramic surface; when heated to 4500C for 30 minutes ion exchange.

2. Thermal tempering

Most common method. Rapidly cool (quench) the surface of an object while hot and in the molten state. skin of rigid glass surrounding a soft (molten) core. as the core solidifies tends to shrink

Outer skin remains rigid

tensile stresses in core and compressive stresses in the outer surface.

Done to develop residual compressive stresses in the veneering porcelain bonding to: a) a metal in metal-ceramic crowns and FPDs b) adjacent ceramic layers in all-ceramic prosthesis.

a) Slight mismatch metal with slightly larger cTE contracts more than porcelain on cooling porcelain in compression. b) Similarly slight mismatch cTE of core ceramic

Stress raisers are discontinuities that cause a stress concentration:

a) Creases or folds of the Platinum foil substrate that become embedded in the porcelain and leave behind notches (stress raisers).

b) Sharp line angles in the tooth preparation.

c) Large change in porcelain thickness (determined by tooth preparation)

d) Small particles of porcelain along the internal porcelain margin of a crown

Improperly adjusted occlusion

contact points (rather than contact areas) localized stresses within the external and internal surface of the porcelain crown

Several firings Changes in the leucite content (high expansion crystal) cTE altered Expansion mismatch between porcelain and metal Stresses in porcelain during cooling crack

Conventional feldspathic porcelain not to be used as core ceramic in posterior areas large occlusal forces. To reduce tensile stresses on the cemented surface at the occlusal region use maximum occlusal thickness possible ( typically 2 mm)
Use of MC crowns metal coping minimizes porcelain flexure.

Interruption of crack propagation

Dispersed particles as crack stoppers

Crystals of high strength and elasticity dispersed in the glass matrix, interfere with crack propagation.

Both the dispersed particles(crystals) and the glass phase should have similar cTE
strength of the glass-crystal composite will in proportion to the crystalline phase.

Finer the particle size a) strength b) opacity

Types of reinforcing crystals:

1) Quartz 2) Alumina a) calcined alumina alpha type b) fused alumina c) alumina whiskers McLean and Hughes high strength aluminous core porcelain

Coarser grains strength probably due to increased notch-effect created at the grain boundaries of the crystals. Influence of alumina crystal concentration on strength: about 40 wt% at this concentration, the glass can flow around and

To reduce the opacity, sinter the alumina crystals to the glass matrix rather than having free crystals.
The glass used with alumina: a) viscosity b) transition temperature c) finer powder size
To obtain easy flow of the glass grains around the alumina crystals at low temperature

Foil crown systems where a thin metallic foil is used as matrix / substructure to strengthen the porcelain (similar to metal-ceramic crowns).
E.g. platinum foil Renaissance (swaged coping technique)

METHOD OF STRENGTHENING CERAMICS

According to John w. McLean (Science &Art of Dental CeramicsOp.Dent.1991:16:149-156)
1) Enameling of metals : a) Metal-ceramic restoration 2) Dispersion strengthening a) Aluminous porcelain b) Slip-cast alumina ceramics (In-Ceram) c) Non-shrink ceramics (Cerestore). 3) Crystallization of glasses - Dicor, Dicor plus 4) Chemical toughening - Ion exchange 5) Bonding to foils - Platinum foil, swaged copings techniques.

Modifications (manipulation and tailoring) of the porcelain microstructure. Conventional feldspathic porcelains are mainly glassy. Newer toughened materials crystalline phase present in the glassy phase.

3 mechanisms:

1) Crack-tip interactions 2) Crack-tip shielding 3) Crack bridging.

Obstacles act to impede the crack motion.

Reorientation of the crack plane.

Crack no longer subjected to just pure tensile stresses; some shear displacement is also involved. Overall deflection manifested as roughness of the final fractured surface.

For materials with similar surface flaws, strength and fracture toughness are directly proportional. Fracture resistance resistance of a material to rapid crack propagation. Strength depends mainly on the size of the initiating crack.

Crack tip interaction

Crack bridging

Transformation toughening

Microcrack toughening

Microcrack toughening

Transformation toughening

Transformation toughening

Microcrack toughening

Associated with the presence of zirconia.

Zr at 1173 C TETRAGONAL High temperature

MONOCLINIC low temperature phase phase High volume

low volume

Addition of oxides like: Calcium oxide Magnesium Oxide Yttrium Oxide Cerium Oxide

Helps retain the tetragonal phase at room temperature.

This is called partial stablilization

Stress

Partially stabilized Tetragonal Zr

Stable monoclinic Zr (3-5% in volume) compressive stresses established on the crack surface. its growth is arrested

Tetragonal phase

Monoclinic phase

Seen in multiphase materials having differences in thermal expansion or elastic modulus.

These materials contain residual stresses act to shield the crack. E.g. Leucite reinforced porcelains.

Leucite

high coefficient of thermal contraction volume reduction associated with phase transformation.

So, leucite contracts much more than the glass matrix.

compressive forces in glass matrix surrounding leucite crystals

microcracking in the leucite phase.

these residual compressive forces in the glass matrix prevent the crack propagation.

The second phase acts as a ligament to make it more difficult for the crack faces to open. Best e.g. bonded fiber composites ( fibres act as ligaments). This mechanism is important in large grain alumina (A12O3) and possibly whisker reinforced ceramics. E.g.: Hi-Ceram (core), Vitadur-N (core), Mirage II (Fiber).

It is the Increase of fracture resistance with crack extension. Is a desirable mechanical property because more energy is needed to propagate a microscopic crack.
J Dent Res 81(8): 547-551, 2002 H. Fischer, W. Rentzch, and R. Marx

Ceramics do not withstand tensile stresses. Tensile stresses force crack extension. In ceramic materials, 3 types of crack extensions can occur: a) sub-critical b) stable c) unstable

Occurs below a critical value K10 called the crack-tip toughness. Is the reason for the well known time dependent strength decrease of ceramic materials. When the load reaches K10 the crack propagates stably and finally unstably until the component fails. This point of failure is characterized by the critical stress intensity factor called fracture toughness KIc

Most important.Friction at the border of the crack tip, which produces the so-called bridging effect Other causes: (all energy-consuming effects) a) crack branching. b) phase transformation effects (characteristic of zirconia ceramics).

Causes of R-curve behaviorcontd

This property is more dominant for larger cracks than smaller cracks( friction at the border of the crack tip increases with the increase in crack size).

This study showed that the R-curve behavior is pronounced for the high strength materials e.g. In-ceram alumina and especially Empress 2.

Silane coating of an etched glass surface to increase its surface affinity to polymers.

Si crystals in glass matrix of porcelain

Ethoxy/ Chloro/ Amino groups

Silanes/ coupling agent

Vinyl group

Resin

Why bond the restoration to the tooth?

The reinforced cores ( e.g. aluminous or glass ceramic) microcrack formation on the internal surface of the restoration. The bonding technique turns the tooth structure itself into a sort of unbreakable core.

Hence minor cracks on the internal surface will not cause catastrophic fracture.

Mechanical bonding: - sandblasting ( 50 silica particles ) - 9.6% HF acid applied

Chemical bonding - silane applied to the prepared porcelain

Chemical adhesion of the resin to the etched porcelain is generally done by the dentist when inserting the restoration.
This is done by the application of silane to the prepared porcelain

Multi-sided molecule.
One side bonds to the silica in the porcelain. The other side bonds to the acrylic bonding agents.

In combination with the mechanical bonding, this makes for a strong bond

Methyl chlorosilanes

Bond formed between the resing bonding agent and the glass in the porcelain.

Rocatec system
SiO2 abrasive particle (50-m diameter)

roughens the substrate surface and increases the Si content

silanes bond the resin to this surface effectively.

FELDSPATHIC PORCELAINS High- , medium- , and low- fusing

Crystalline particles and amorphous matrix (heterogeneous microstructure unlike the LFP)

Use- manufacture of denture teeth.

Anterior teeth - By mechanical interlocking made with projecting metal pins that become surrounded with the denture base resin during processing.

Posterior teeth molded with diatoric spaces into which the denture base resin may flow.

Porcelain denture teeth compared to acrylic resin denture teeth Advantages 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

More esthetic or natural

More resistant to wear & distortion. Denture can be rebased Biocompatible Dimensional & colour stability

Disadvantages of porcelain teeth

1.
2.

Brittleness.
Clicking sound on contact

3.
4. 5.

Cant be easily polished after grinding.

Higher density ( increased weight of teeth ) No bonding to acrylic base (Mechanical attachment).

6. Mismatch in coefficient of thermal expansion stresses in acrylic denture base.

7. Require greater inter-ridge distance cannot be ground thin in the ridge-lap area without destroying the diatoric channels (retentive part).

Historically- any porcelain fired below the melting point of pure gold ( 1,064.4C) Traditionally porcelain materials: low-fusing 850 to 1060 C medium-fusing 1,090 to 1,260C high- fusing.. 1315 to 1,380C

Refers to ceramics, which generally fuse at temperatures lower than metal alloys (850 1100C).

Low fusion temperature

Chemically similar, but microstructurally different from the high-fusing porcelains. Relatively higher proportion of glass modifiers (oxides of Na+ & K+ that readily react with SiO2 & Al2O3 at high temperatures to produce an amorphous glass).

Unlike HFP, the components of a LFP are nearly completely dissolved when cooled shows a nearly homogeneous microstructure of glass.

These formulations generally contain higher alkali fluxes (Na, K & Li) added to the conventional feldspathic porcelain to : a) lower the firing temperature.
b) to increase the thermal expansion to a level compatible with that of the metal coping.

Need for low-fusing porcelains?

Attempts to use gold rather than platinum foil as a burnishable matrix created a need for low-fusing porcelains for inlay work in the late 1800s. Southan - preference for lower firing schedules largely influenced by the instability of pigments at higher temperatures.

cTE mismatch. (porcelain- slightly lesser cTE-> during cooling below the strain point it shrinks less than the metal and is placed into slight compression at the interface) Provides one method for improving the degree of control of oxide formation and interaction at the interface when using the base metal alloys.

Allows the use of a wider range and type of alloy systems, some of which may undergo creep at the temperatures at which most conventional porcelain fuse (980C)

Uses of Low fusing porcelains

Mainly ceramo-metal restorations which require ceramics with lower fusing temperature than the metal alloy.

Low fusing porcelains containing certain insoluble oxides can be used to alter the colour and the degree of opacity to produce tooth like shades (stains, overglazes).

Compatibility with a variety of popular metals including titanium, allowing a greater range of alloy choice.
Low abrasive wear against natural enamel, hence it can be a prime indication for use against natural dentition. Highly polishable in the mouth, eliminating the need for glazing procedures after intraoral adjustments.

Opaque porcelain Body porcelain

Stains and glazes

Aluminous porcelain (LFP + alumina )

Low fusing glass with insoluble oxides (TiO2, ZrO2)

Mature at slightly higher temperatures than the overlying body porcelains to minimize the dispersion within the body porcelains during repeated firings and thereby lose their opaque qualities.

a) incisal (or enamel ) shades- no colorant oxides

b) gingival (or dentin ) shades- small amounts of colorants c) modifiers- larger amounts of colorants ranging across the color spectrum and including white and gray.

Lower proportion of alumina and silica than body porcelains. High amounts of oxides fluidity at high temperatures Create a glassy veneer and superficial characterization Balanced for nearly equal cTE with body and opaque porcelains.

Commercially available low fusing ceramics

Vita Alpha ( Vita Zahnafabrik, Bad Sackingen Germany) Vita Omega (Vita Zahnafabrik, bad Sackingen Germany) Procera (Nobelpharma Gothenstein) Empress ( Ivoclar, schaan, Liechtenstein)

Finesse (Ceramco, Addleston, Weybridge, U.K.)

Other low fusing ceramic systems

Golden Gate system Ceramco 3 Vita Omega 900 (Vita) Mirage P (Chameleon Dent products, Kansas ) Ducera Gold (Degussal, Flanan, Germany) Creation (Klema Dental Products, Melningen, Austria) Ti-Ceram (Nobelpharma)

Duceram LFC

Hydrothermal ceramics (Hydrothermal ceramic for PFM crowns: Quintessence international vol 27, # 8/ 1996)

Are basically low fusing porcelains containing hydroxyl groups in the glass matrix. Reduced melting, softening and sintering temperatures
Exhibit an increase in thermal expansion and mechanical strength without a compromise in their chemical solubility.

The hydroxyl addition is called a palstified layer

OH- added to the porcelain structure through exposure to water or water vapours (hence the term hydrothermal)

Increases chemical resistance

generates a smoother surface profile possesses the unique capacity of healing surface flaws through the ion exchange process.

HC + high noble alloy with low M.P

a single alloy can be used for all types of dental restorations and reconstructions.

Hydrothermal ceramics can be formulated as two types : A single phase porcelain E.g: Duceram LFC (Degussa Dental, South Plainfield, NJ) A leucite containing two phase material E.g: Duceragold (Degussa Dental, South Plainfield, NJ)

Conventional pocelains
microflaws can increase over a time period a) surface dicolourations b) reduction in flexural strength.

In hydrothermal ceramics at the surface layer

ionic exchange between alkali and hydroxyl groups

hydrothermal layer (1m thick in vivo and 3m in vitro) seals the surface microcracks

this ionic exchange is suggestive of an effect of healing the surface flaws an increase in strength

Advantages of hydrothermal ceramics over conventional porcelains

Lower fusion temperature (680-7000 C) Increased coefficient of thermal expansion Minimal abrasion of opposing dentition Greater toughness and durability

Stronger bond to the deep gold coloured Degunorm alloy(Degussa Dental, S. Plainfield, NJ).

Duceram LFC
Low fusing hydrothermal ceramic Composed of an amorphous glass containing hydroxyl ions. Has a non crystalline structure (No leucite crystals)
Lower hardness than feldspathic porcelain (due to absence of leucite crystals)
less abrasion of opposing natural tooth structure.

High flexural strength and healing of surface cracks (OH- exchange) Restoration made in 2 layers Base layer Duceram Metal ceramic (leucite ++)

Placed on refractory die using powder slurry technique

Second layer- Over the base layer, a veneer of Duceram LFC is applied using powder slurry technique baked at relatively low temperature (660C)

Supplied in different shades No special equipment needed

Advantages of Duceram LFC over feldspathic porcelain:

Greater density
Higher flexural strength Greater fracture resistance

Lower abrasion than feldspathic porcelain (wear rate equal to that of natural teeth) Surface resistant to chemical attack by fluoride containing agents. Highly polishable, not requiring re-glazing during adjustment.

Duceram LFC and Duceragold do not contain large leucite crystals and hence maintain a stable cTE over several firings.

 Cannot be directly sintered on the metallic substructure because of the low coefficient of expansion.

Thus, an inner lining of conventional high-fusing ceramic is required on the metal substructure because of the low coefficient of expansion.

Golden Gate System:

(Hydrothermal ceramic for PFM crowns: Quintessence international vol 27, # 8/ 1996)

Golden-yellow alloy with high gold content (Degunorm, Degussa) + a hydrothermal low fusing ceramic (Duceragold, Ducera) is together called Golden gate system Based on the idea of being able to veneer a universal, low fusing alloy that is gold-coloured.

Duceragold (Ducera Dental)

Leucite-containing Hydrothermal glass-ceramic system Fusion temperature of approximately 8000C. The leucite crystals are highly dispersed required high thermal expansion of the ceramic. Hydrothermal ceramic hence high resistance to hydrolysis, chemical attack without the addition of fluxes and also has high flexural strength.

Type IV high Gold (deep yellow): - 73% Au - 9% Pt - 9.2% Ag.

Palladium-free Extra hard Low melting range (9000C-9900C).

Advantages of Golden Gate System:

1) Chairside ceramics polishable with rubber wheels

no glazing required

- Low sintering point the thermal effect of the mechanical polishing causes a local sintering of the boundary layer. - Their highly polished surface is comparable to that of a highly flamepolished ceramic

Hence, an accurately smooth occlusally adjusted surface can be obtained without additional flame polishing (unlike conventional ceramics)
occlusal changes because of glazing during the last firing process avoided more accurate occlusal adjustment

2) Smoother surfaces with very little plaque adhesion

Advantages of Golden Gate Systemcontd.

3) Esthetic appearance : Translucence ideal (the leucite content is low and highly
dispersed). Opalescent and fluorescent appearance due to their low sintering temperature.

Available in different shades for the reproduction of life-like appearance in porcelain.

Gold-background of the high gold content alloy (Degunorm) - improves the esthetics of the restorations. - neutralises the dark, sub-gingival margins of white dental alloys among anterior teeth

No tendency to discolor.

Advantages of Golden Gate Systemcontd.

4) Ability to have both veneered and unveneered units in

one casting.

5)

Fitting accuracy is as precise as that of conventional procedures.

6) The low melting range of the high gold content alloy allows the use of plaster or gypsum bonded investment (better fitting casting and low risk involved in devesting).

Surface areas of hydrothermal Duceragold ceramic veneers and accurately fitting margins on the die. Veneered crown, tooth 36; ceramic-veneered inlay, tooth 37.

7) A Pre-manufactured attachment (multi CON1 System) made completely of Degunorm metal structure is available that can be fastened to fixed and removable parts without soldering, thus reducing the number of different types of alloys used in a patients mouth.

Activated counter die

Support for the attachments on ceramic veneered crowns 22 and 23, made from Degunorm/Duceragold

Ceramic-veneered crowns, teeth 34, 35 and 36, made from Degunorm and Duceragold; complete crown, tooth 37, made from Degunorm. All are shown after dying of the plaque ( 18 months post insertion)

Ceramic veneered crowns, teeth 45 and 46, made from Degunorm and Duceragold; complete crown, tooth 47, made from Degunorm

Treatment of the buccal surface of a tooth (ceramic-veneered crowns, teeth 25 and 26; inlay tooth 24; complete crown, tooth 27; Degunorm and Duceragold), 12 months post insertion.

Advantages of Golden Gate Systemcontd.

8) A self-healing hydroxyl layer (hydrothermal property) increases flexural strength by upto 30%.

9) The Golden Gate System is multi-indicative for: -inlays and onlays, - crown milling work -all types bridge construction, for fixed or removable cast dentures (in combination with attachments) as well as superstructures.

Metal copings

Metal -ceramic Restorations

Veneered porcelain

Strength and accuracy of metal with esthetics of porcelain

0.3mm thick metal for noble metal and 0.2 mm thick for base metal on the facial side Opaque porcelain veneer 0.3 mm thick Body porcelain 1 mm thick.

Cast (wax pattern, cast, finished, heat treated/oxidized, opaque and veneer porcelains applied) most commonly used.
Non- Cast - sintering - machining - swaging - burnishing

Casting - Metal alloy substructure is cast using a phosphate-bonded investment. Heat degassing treatment - to produce a surface oxide layer and ensure a clean meta surface for bonding.

Finishing - Ceramic bonded stones or sintered diamonds are used for further cleaning and surface finishing.
Sandblasting - Final sandblasting with high-purity alumina abrasive ensures that the porcelain is bonded to a clean and mechanically retentive surface. Condensation of procelain

Until the mid 20th century, gold and amalgam were virtually the only materials available for the restoration and replacement of posterior teeth. Porcelain jacket crowns were available for front teeth, but they did not fit very well, and they were prone to easy fracture.

In 1962 that all changed when Dr. Abraham Weinstein patented the first gold based alloy upon which porcelain could be baked. The metal substructure reinforced the porcelain and gave it the durability and the strength to resist fracture in the mouth.

It made it possible for the first time to replace missing teeth with natural looking tooth coloured fixed bridgework. In addition, due to the accuracy of the lost wax technique, the appliances could fit the tooth preparations exactly.

Porcelain will not chemically bond with gold by itself. trace elements in the composition of the alloy
oxide layer on its surface bonds the porcelain to the metal.

The three oxide-forming elements are : iron, indium and tin. Porcelain is, itself, made of metal oxides. Thus it will bind with the oxides on the surface of the gold framework.

Metal oxides formed on the surface of the casting

mix with the porcelain

colour, reflective properties and translucency affected.

Thus the porcelain must be formulated to overcome these effects.

Porcelain melts at high temperatures (between 850C and 1350C depending on the type of porcelain used).
It is applied as wet powder over the metal framework, and baked, or fired in order to fuse the powder particles together. the metal substructure must resist sagging and deformation while being held at this high temperature for several hours while the porcelain is fused over it. Otherwise, the casting will not fit the teeth in the mouth.

The metal is opaque and generally has a gold or gray colour. Porcelain must be translucent, or it fails the tests of aesthetics.
There must be a mechanism to mask" the underlying metal framework, or the finished appliance will have a gray cast and not look real.

The index of thermal expansion of the metal must be nearly identical to that of the porcelain.

Otherwise, the porcelain will simply shatter off of the framework as it cools after being fired.

Ideally, porcelain should be under slight compression in the final restoration.

Select an alloy/porcelain combination in which the alloy contracts slightly more than the porcelain on cooling to room temperature compression of porcelain--> crack propagation.

 All porcelains used to veneer metallic substructures

contain leucite crystals.

propagation of cracks in the porcelain veneer cTE

Buccal gingival margin is removed on the die. - done to allow a butt porcelain margin so that no metal will show in the final crown The cast metal coping is placed back on the die .

Next, a thin layer of opaque porcelain powder (frit) is layered over the metal in order to mask the underlying darkness. Otherwise, the finished crown would always show a gray caste.

Applied in a minimum of 2 layers. - first thin layer wetting layer, - subsequent layers fill in the irregularities and mask the metal.

Opaque porcelains are of two types:

1. Texture Opaque Porcelain. E.g. Ceramco Opaque UltraPake (Ceramco Inc).

2. Smooth-surface opaque porcelain (conventional) E.g. Ceramco Opaque Paint O-Pake (Ceramco Inc)

Ultra-PAKE Opaquing porcelain system (Ceramco, Inc):

utilizes Enhanced Ultra - Escent Crystals sprinkled over the thinnest paint inner scattering of light improve the overall vitality and fluorescence of restoration.

 The crystals create a light-refractive opaque. 25% thinner than standard opaque layers.

This system inhibits greening, prevents gray margin lines and saves time with premixed pastes.
Available in wide-range of premixed modifier pastes.

Biopaque (Detrey, Dentsply) paste system to be applied directly on the metallic substructure. consists of 2 pastes for light and dark shades. a) base paste (first layer) covered by powdered dispersing crystals first bake.

b) coloured opaque paste(second layer) available in thinner consistency and 8 different shades compared to the base paste. Fine translucent crystal powder is sprinkled and fired at the same temperature as the first opaque layer.

Diffusion of a gas depends on: - temperature - time - distance

Temperature Firing time Distance to the surface Greater mass of gas will escape

Since it is crucial to avoid bubble in the opaque, use diffusion law to the maximum advantage while firing this layer.
Dangerous to alter the recommended firing cycle proper fusion is dependent on both the peak temperature and rate of firing. So, decrease the distance through which the air must diffuse by firing 2 thin layers of opaque rather than one thick layer. Although an extra step, this initial application of opaque helps minimize the voids at the critical metal-ceramic interface.

Base paste application

Crystal application

First firing

Shaded paste application

Modifier application

Crystals after the shaded paste

2nd firing: sandpaper- like finish

Step 1. Thin the opaque mixture and apply a wash coat, working it into the bonder. Step 1: Thin the opaque mixture and apply a wash coat, working it into the bonder.

Opaque Application

Step Check and remove any opaque on on the inside of the coping then Step 2: 2. Check and remove any opaquethe inside of the coping and and then fire on the fire on the opaque firing cycle. opaque firing cycle.

Step 3. Process in the furnace. Follow the porcelain manufacturers Step 3: process in the furnace. Follow the manufacturers opaque firing cycles. opaque firing cycles.

Step 4. The second layer is slightly thicker. Remove any opaque on the inside of Step 4: The second layer is slightly thicker. Remove any opaque on the the coping and fire. inside of the coping and fire.

After the opaque layer is fused onto the metal coping, the first layer of overlying porcelain is applied with a wet paintbrush. Different shades of frit are applied over various parts of the crown in order to make the finished tooth look more natural:

The coping, along with its "green" porcelain is removed from the die and placed in a vacuum kiln and fired at about 1700 degrees F

The green porcelain shrinks during its firing, so a second layer of porcelain frit is layered over the first bake.

After rebuilding the correct contours, the crown is replaced in the vacuum kiln for its second and final firing.

METAL CERAMIC BOND

Ideal metallurgical properties Structural design Surface design and finishing

High modulus of elasticity: lesser flexion ( stresses) High yield strength: (resistance to permanent deformation) Fine grain structure: - mechanical stability of the marginal area. - corrosion resistance - hardness Sag resistance Castability: accurately fitting castings Bond potential: - alloy should allow good wetting - thermally compatible with the veneer material.

Deflection directly proportional to L3 inversely proportional to T4

As thick as possible occlusogingivally in the interproximal region, especially for long span bridges, without impinging on the embrasure space.

Metal reaching the occlusal surface; adequate embrasure space; optimum rigidity by maximizing Occluso-Gingival thickness.

Adequate thickness, but at the expense of embrasure space.

Adequate embrasure space, but risks of deflection due to decreased thickness.

DCNA : 21, # 4; oct 1977

Ideally marginal area metal collar with no overlay of ceramic. Firing porcelain in the thin marginal area

thin metal
elastic deformation upon seating

stress in the ceramic or even permanent deformation when the shrinking porcelain is fired.

Surface designed to minimize stress concentration by stress raisers ( local irregularities pits, notches, sharp angles, small holes) All finishing with non-contaminating stones

Grinding to be done in one direction

grinding in several directions

microscopic metal peaks folded onto one another

surface air entrapment

bubble formation in the opaque layer.

Opaque Metal

Air
Diagrammatic representation of a metal surface finished in different directions. Note the surface air entrapment with resultant bubbles in the opaque layer.

DCNA : 21, # 4; oct 1977

Four mechanism have been described to explain the bond between the ceramic veneer and the metal substructure.
1. Mechanical entrapment 2. Compressive forces 3. Van der waals forces 4. Chemical bonding

The microabrasions on the surface of the metal coping which are created by finishing the metal with non contaminating stones / discs and are abrasives.
Sandblasting the alloy with aluminium oxide keying effect micro surface irregularities good surface for retention of porcelain. The influence of sandblasting type of alloy and porcelain used eg. Pd- based alloys more sensitive to insufficient surface conditioning than high noble alloys.

A thin film (3 ) of a platinum- gold bonding agent (KIK Bonding Agent- KPD Dental Co., Tokyo, Japan) is painted on the surface of the alloy and then fired.
countless number of microscopic pt. beads (3 dia) produced on the surface.

unsurpassed retention for an extremely fine mesh ceramic powder.

Sandblasting: ( at a pressure of 2 bars) In the past 50 microns aluminium oxide Degussa now recommends 100-150 microns aluminium oxide best bond Greater than 150 microns too rough a surface that reduces the bond strength risk of destroying the margins

The potential of alloys to bond to porcelain is largely determined by the formation of adherent oxides during the degassing cycle. Surface oxides for porcelain bonding can be provided by:

Introducing traces of base metals into precious metal alloys, which on heating will produce thin oxide films. Direct oxide production via the constituents of the alloy (base - metal) Electro-deposition.

Oxide formers ( iron, indium, tin) Oxide layer formed after every ceramic firing Oxide layer to be of uniform thickness and composition Hence alloy blasted with aluminum oxide after every firing.

Schematic illustration of chemical bonding of porcelain to oxidized metal. The light metal circles represent non oxidizable metals such as gold and pt.; the dark metal circles represent the oxidizable bonding metals such as indium and tin.

Oxide layer formed.

The coping is placed in a furnace at relatively low temperature and is then raised slowly to about 1000C in vacuum. slowly air cooled in normal atmosphere. allows any contaminants/ gas inclusion to burn off.

At the same time base metal atoms will diffuse to the surface of the metal and form on oxide film, tin.

What actually occurs during degassing is a molecular rearrangement of the alloy microstructure heat softened metal. Succumb more readily to the contraction of the porcelain in the subsequent firing procedures.

1) 2)

Discrepancy in fit of prosthesis before and after porcelain application Decreased bond strength Also, the technique requires the addition of trace elements in micrometric amounts unachievable.

Mismatch in the cTE

This slight difference will cause the porcelain to draw towards the metal coping when the restoration cools after firing.

Minor, weak forces for bonding Come into play during the initial firing stages when the opaque porcelain is introduced into the hot zone of the furnace and lensing and initial sintering occurs.
Fluctuating dipoles in symmetric molecules eg. inert gas

Charges become momentarily positive and negative

FFluctuating dipole attracts other similar dipoles

Shear bond strength: 25-55 Mpa depending upon the alloy and the preparation used

Metal porcelain: - Fracture occurs, leaving a clean surface of metal. - Seen when metal surface is totally devoid of oxides. - May also be due to contaminated or porous metal surfaces.

Metal oxide- porcelain: - Porcelain fractures at metal oxide surface. - Oxide left firmly attached to the metal. - Often seen in base metal alloys.

Metal-metal oxide: - Metal oxide breaks away from the metal and is left attached to the porcelain . - Seen commonly in base metal alloy systems due to overproduction of Cr /Ni oxides

Metal oxide - metal oxide: - Fracture through the metal oxides. - Results from over production of oxide.

Cohesive within metal - Only in cases for e.g. where the joint area in bridges breaks. - Most unlikely type of fracture.

Cohesive within the porcelain - Most common in high gold content alloys. - Bond strength exceeds the strength of the porcelain and tensile failure occurs within the porcelain.

NON-CAST METAL-CERAMIC SYSTEMS

Bonding of porcelain to metal using electrodeposition:

A layer of pure gold is deposited onto the cast metal
a short flashing deposition of tin. Successfully used for metals and alloys such as cobalt, chromium, stainless steel, palladium silver, high and low gold content alloys and titanium.

The advantages of electrodeposition:

1. Bonding is improved because of improved wetting of the metal by the porcelain and reduced porosity at the porcelain metal interface.

2. The electrodeposited layer acts as barrier between the metal casting and porcelain to inhibit ion penetration by the metal within normal limits of porcelain maturation

The advantages of electrodepositioncontd..

3. The gold color of the oxide film improves the vitality and esthetics of porcelain, when compared to the normal dark oxides which require thick opaque layers of porcelain to mark it.

4. The deposited layer acts as a buffer zone to absorb stresses.

E.g. Renaissance crown, Captek system.

Captek system Acronym for Capillary casting technology Finished metal coping is a composite material of a gold matrix reinforced with Pt-Pd-Au alloy. Inner and outer surfaces contain approximately 97 % gold. Captek P(highly malleable gold-pt-pa alloy) and Captek G used. No data regarding the survivability of captek prostheses

More resistant to fracture than traditional all-ceramic crown.

Is the only dependable means of fabricating an esthetic FPD when full coverage is required on one or both retainers.

Potential alloy corrosion leading to toxicity and allergy concerns.

Esthetic problems such as lack of translucency, discoloration (greening) of some ceramics from sliver in the alloy and excessive Value in the cervical third. Excessive amounts of tooth reduction necessary and the associated tendency to over contour the restoration. Incompatibility between metal and ceramic, and the difficulty in establishing standard tests for bond strength and thermal compatibility.

The term All-Ceramic refers to

Any restorative material composed exclusively of ceramic, such as feldspathic porcelain, glass-ceramic, alumina core systems and certain combination of these materials. (J. Esth Dent 1997, 9 (2): 86).

Increased translucency Improved fluorescence Greater contribution of colour from the underlying tooth structure Inertness Bio-compatibility Resistance to corrosion Low temperature / electrical conductivity

CONVENTIONAL (POWDER SLURRY) CERAMICS CASTABLE CERAMICS MACHINABLE CERAMICS PRESSABLE CERAMICS

INFILTRATED CERAMICS

Fluoromicas

Dicor Dicor MGC

Apatite Glass-Ceramic Cera Pearl (Kyocera Bioceram)

Other Glass-Ceramics Based on a) Lithia b) calcium phosphate

they start out as a pure glass in which finely dispersed crystalline structures are stimulated to "grow" within the solidified glass matrix by a process of controlled devitrification. Devitrification means the formation of crystals on or within an amorphous glass, generally due to a prolonged cooling cycle. The presence of native crystalline inclusions strengthens the glass and makes it more flexible, reducing the presence and severity of microcracks and acting as crack stoppers

1) The size and distribution of the crystalline substructure within the glass can be precisely controlled, making it possible to fabricate cores and veneers out of the same glass.

The cores are strong and sometimes opaque while the veneer is translucent and esthetic, yet they are made out of the same glass ceramic.

2) These native crystals are much more compatible with the existing glass chemistry and their complete integration with the glass gel allows for much better translucency than the older aluminous core crowns.

3) The crystals formed within the glass lend the finished body various characteristics such as greater thermal expansion and elasticity which can be precisely controlled to suit the purpose of the specific porcelain.

4) Glass ceramics are still a form of glass, and thus they can be etched. This means that they can be bonded directly to tooth structure which improves the strength of the restoration tremendously.

In general, devitrification within a glass body creates opacity which makes the glass unusable for esthetic purposes unless a veneer of non crystalline feldspathic porcelain is fused on visible surfaces

Ceramming is a controlled crystallization (devitrification) of the glass formation of tiny crystals

evenly distributed throughout the body of the glass structure. determined by the time and temperature of the ceramming heat treatment

The size of the crystals, their number and rate of growth

There are two parts to the ceramming process: a) crystal nucleation b) crystal growth.

Each phase happens because the glass body is held at a specific temperature for a specific length of time.

when held at the crystal nucleation temperature multiple seed crystals begin to grow throughout the glass body.

The longer the glass is held at this temperature, the more seed crystals will form.
Ideally, a glass ceramic will be strongest when there is a very large number of small crystals distributed evenly throughout its mass.

Once a seed crystal forms, it will also begin growing larger at this temperature, but quite slowly. If the temperature of the glass body is held at the crystal nucleation temperature for a very long time, a very large number of crystals of widely varying size will form.

The earliest to seed will be the largest while the crystals that have recently just begun to grow will be the smallest.

In order to better control the esthetics of the finished product, the ideal glass ceramic will have crystals of a small, relatively uniform size.

Large crystals are more prone to making the glass opaque, while small crystals evenly scattered throughout the structure have less of an impact on the optical qualities of the finished product.

Thus it is of benefit to hold the temperature at the point of maximum seeding for a finite length of time in order to allow numerous tiny seed crystals to nucleate, and then to stop the nucleation process and encourage the ones that have already formed to grow to suitable size.

the ideal temperature The ideal temperature range for range for crystalin glass crystal seeding seeding in glass bodies is different than the bodies is different than ideal temperature range for the ideal temperature therange for the crystal crystal growth. growth,

so it is possible to control so it is possible to both phases separately and control precisely. both phases
separately and precisely.

particles are at least the size of the wavelength of the ambient light the light waves will bounce off them and scatter cloudiness, or if there are enough of them, total opacity.

particles are smaller than the wavelength of the ambient light the light waves tend to bend around them making them invisible the glass remains transparent

..

Thus the opacity of the glass ceramics can be adjusted by controlling the size and concentration of the crystals, and this can be done precisely by controlling the firing cycle

Optec HSP, Fortress

condensed and sintered over a refractory die like traditional feldspathic porcelain crowns.

These restorations can be used on anterior teeth, but are still too weak to fabricate bridges, or crowns for posterior teeth.

Empress (Ivoclar-Vivadent) and Optec OPS use a lost wax technique to press glass ceramic crowns rather than the powder condensation technique.

Produced by incongruent melting of feldspar The original feldspathic glass used in the production of porcelain fused to metal restorations additional leucite crystals

as crack stoppers. optical properties thermal expansion properties made it possible to more easily fit the veneer to the metal substructure.

These leucite containing porcelains had about the same flexural strength as the original feldspathic porcelains, about 30-60 MPa. The crystals in cerammed leucite, however can be controlled more precisely, and their size and density within the glass matrix produces a much more translucent glass at a flexural strength of up to about 120 MPa. The glass ceramic is supplied in ingots.

Mica is a naturally occurring mineral

Mica is a naturally occurring mineral.

The crystals form in very thin, flat sheets, and tend to be optically clear, but in natural formations, the mineral looks like a glassy, silvery rock with a stepped flat surface. The crystals are stacked on top of each other like pages in a book.

Though no longer sold, the first commercially available castable dental ceramic was Dicor. It was developed by Corning glass works and marketed by Dentsply.
55 vol% mica crystals The mica crystals formed in Dicor are based on the composition SiO2 K2O MgO Al2O3 ZrO2. fluorides are added to the mixture to help produce a degree of fluorescence in the finished prosthesis. For this reason, this formulation is called a fluoromica glass ceramic.

wax pattern. An ingot of the castable ceramic is placed in a special crucible, melted, and centrifugally cast at a temperature of 1380C.
Ceramming is done at this stage, nucleation and growth of needle-like crystals form at random angles rather than the plate-like crystals of naturally occurring mica. formins an interlocking matrix added flexural strength to the ceramic body.

One of the peculiarities of this glass ceramic is that crystal growth can be controlled so that the crystals that form can be smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
This property, combined with the fact that the refractive index of the tiny mica particles is close to that of the surrounding glass means that the ceramic body can be nearly transparent. For practical reasons, the mica crystals are allowed to grow to a larger size in order to produce a translucency close to that of enamel.

Proper shading and characterization is produced by sintering a layer of self glazing shading porcelain over the surface of the finished glass ceramic body.

Fluoromica glass ceramic restorations have a flexural strength in the region of 120-150 MPa, slightly more than that of the leucite containing glass ceramics.

Their strength makes them adequate for fabricating bonded crowns for premolars.

Chameleon Effect of dicor:

part of the colour of the restoration is picked up from the adjacent teeth as well as from the cement used for luting the restoration.

Ease of fabrication Minimal processing shrinkage Improved aesthetics Good marginal adaptation Abrasiveness is same as that of the tooth Moderately high flexural strength.

 Increased cost, Increased time of fabrication.

When used for posterior crowns, ceramic

crowns are most susceptible to fracture. Inability to be colored internally.

Low tensile strength

Need for external coloring rather than coloring the core.

Dicor MGC:

70 vol% tetrasilicic fluormical crystals. CAD-CAM blocks. Lesser translucency than dicor

Both dicor minimally abrasive But the shading porcelains were more abrasive. Overcome by: Willis glass Dicor plus

Instead of using stains, alternative technique is to cast the glass as a core and bake veneer shaded feldspathic porcelain over it. This is called as Willis glass.

Dicor Plus a shaded feldspathic porcelain veneer applied to the Dicor substrate.

However it is a feldspathic porcelain that contains leucite expected to be as abrasive to teeth as other feldspathic porcelains.

Empress II (today called Eris) and Optec OPS 3G

The lithium disilicate core is somewhat opaque, but is the strongest of all the glass ceramics (~350450MPa). This makes the core strong enough to fabricate crowns for molars, and adequate for the fabrication of anterior three unit bridges.

makes up about 70% of the volume of this glass ceramic. it consists of many small interlocking plate-like crystals that are randomly oriented. The interlocking nature of the crystals, as well as their high density gives this glass ceramic very high flexural strength. The ceramic body is said to be highly translucent because the high optical compatibility between the crystals and the glassy matrix minimizes internal scattering of light.

The lithium disilicate ceramics are different from other glass ceramics in that it has an unusually high coefficient of thermal expansion, and ordinary feldspathic glasses cannot be sintered over the lithium disilicate substructure. Therefore, a new esthetic glass ceramic with a higher thermal expansion had to be invented to overlay the thick framework.

This new layering ceramic is an apatite glass ceramic. The crystals formed on ceramming have the composition Ca10(PO4)6 2OH. This is the same basic constituent in natural tooth enamel.

High strength because of controlled particle size reinforcement.

Excellent esthetics resulting from light transmission similar to that of natural teeth .and convenient procedures for imparting the required colour. Accurate form for occlusion, proximal contacts, and marginal adaptation. Uniformity and purity of the material. Favorable soft tissue response.

X-ray density allowing examination by radiograph

Hardness and wear properties closely matched to those of natural enamel

Similar thermal conductivity and thermal expansion to natural enamel Dimensional stability regardless of any porcelain corrective procedure and subsequent firings