Sie sind auf Seite 1von 103

DC TO DC CONVERTERS

INTRODUCTION
A DC to DC converter is a conversion device or an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current from one voltage to other. Offer a method of generating multiple controlled voltages from a single battery voltage. Maintain a stable voltage when battery voltage declines as its stored power is drained. Saving space instead of using multiple batteries.

Applications

Power supplies for personal computers. 170v or 340v are regulated to 5v or 3.3v required by the processor ICs. Portable electronic devices such as Cell phone laptops etc. To convert the single supply voltage to multiple dc voltages required on the same chip.

DC to DC basics

Voltage regulator vs. DC to DC converters features Voltage Regulator


Linear regulators drop the input voltage to a lower output voltage. They are inefficient, as they convert the dropped voltage into heat dissipation. Linear regulators are inexpensive, reliable, and much simpler than DC-DC Converter. Linear regulators also can provide a very quiet output voltage, and are much more suited to powering sensitive analog circuits. However, unlike DC-DC converters, linear regulators cannot generate: Higher voltages than their input. Large currents (due to excess heat).

Voltage regulator vs. DC to DC converters


DC to DC converter features

Electronic switch-mode DC to DC converters convert one DC voltage level to another, by storing the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to the output at a different voltage. The storage may be in either magnetic components (inductors, transformers or capacitors) for a period of time. By adjusting the PWM Duty Cycle (the ratio of on/off time), the amount of power transferred can be controlled. Usually, this is done to control the output voltage, though it could be done to control the input current, the output current, or maintaining a constant power This conversion method is more power efficient (often 80% to 98%) than linear voltage regulation. This efficiency is beneficial to increasing the running time of battery operated devices. Drawbacks of DC-DC converter converters include cost, complexity and electronic noise.

Basic block diagram of DC to DC Converter

Magnetic field storage element

Voltage source

Switch control

Switching element

Output rectifier And filter

DC to DC Basics
vs(t) = Vg when the switch is in position 1. vs(t) = 0 when the switch is in position 2. Switch position varies Periodically. vs(t) is a rectangular waveform having period Ts and duty cycle D.

DC to DC basics (Contd.)

D = fraction of time that the switch is connected to 1 hence 0 < D < 1 Switching frequency fs = 1/Ts

DC to DC basics (Contd.)

DC component of vs(t) is given by Fourier analysis

DC to DC basics (Contd.)

Power Consumption = 0 (Ideal) Switch contacts are closed, the voltage across the contacts is equal to zero and hence the power dissipation is zero Switch contacts are open, zero current and the power dissipation is again equal to zero.

DC to DC basics (Contd.)

To remove undesired harmonics of switching frequency, LC Low pass filter is used :

Corner frequency is set much less than switching frequency.

DC to DC basics (Contd.)

conversion ratio M(d) is the ratio of dc output voltage to the dc input voltage under steady state conditions:

DC to DC Converter Topologies

DC to DC converter Topologies
Non transformer isolated converter topologies. Buck converter Boost Converter Buck-Boost Converter Cuk converter

DC to DC converter Topologies (contd.)

Transformer isolated converter topologies Fly back converter Push-pull converter. Forward converter Half bridge converter. Full bridge converter.

Buck Converter (Step-down converter)


Takes unregulated input voltage and produce a lower regulated output voltage. Used as 3 terminal regulator in applications where low cost high efficiency are critical.

When the switch is turned on

With a voltage (Vs - Vo) across L, current rises linearly in the inductor. The rise (in amps per second) is determined by I / T = ( Vs - Vo) / L . C1 smoothes out L1's current changes into a stable voltage at Vo. Also, C1 is big enough such that Vo doesn't change significantly during one switching cycle . Diode is reverse biased.

When the switch is turned off

As L's magnetic field collapses, current falls linearly through L. The fall (amps per second) is again determined by the voltage across L1 and its inductance. I / T = ( Vo + VD) / L1 . Although L1's current direction is the same, Ls voltage is reversed. That's L is maintaining current flow by reversing its voltage when the applied voltage is removed. Diode turns ON providing a path for L1's current to flow .

Buck converter waveforms

Discontinued Mode

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a time lower than the whole commutation period. Inductor current is equal to zero.

Boost-Converter (Step up converter)


It takes an unregulated input voltage and produces higher regulated output voltage. Typically used in low power applications where a low voltage bus must be stepped up for a local circuitry.

When switch is ON

When Switch is closed rectifier D1 is reverse biased and energy is stored in the inductor L1. Current to the output load is supplied by the output capacitor.

When the switch is turned off The energy field L1 begins to collapse reversing the voltage polarity on the inductor and forward biasing D1. Current now flows through the D1 to the output supplying the load and boosting the charge in c1 to a value higher than the input.

Boost converter waveforms

Discontinuous mode

The power output of boost topology is limited to about 150watt due to high peak currents which stress the power switch and the diode

Buck-Boost Converter.

Both step up and step down conversion Vout is adjustable based on the duty cycle. Inverts the polarity of the voltage.

When switch is on

Energy from the source is transferred to L and diode is reverse biased. C is discharged into output load RL and the Vout is falling.

When the switch is Off

Inductor maintains current forward biasing the diode. Inductor transfers energy to the capacitor. Vout increases.

Buck-boost converter waveforms

Cuk converter

Both step up and step down conversion. Uses capacitor as energy storage element instead of load inductor. Inverts the polarity of the voltage. Switch is grounded Comparing with Buckboost converter.

Uses two capacitors and two inductors instead of one. When switch is turned on,current flows from input source through L1,and S Storing energy in L1 magnetic field. When S is turned off, the voltage across L1 reverses to maintain current flow. Current then flows from input source, through L1 and D1,charging up c1. Then when S is turned on again ,c1 discharges through L2 into the load with L2 and C2 acting as a smoothing filter. Meanwhile energy is being stored again in L1,ready for the next cycle.

Cuk converter waveforms

Forward converter
This is transformer version of buck converter. Used for low power applications.

When the switch is turned on

Diode D1 conducts and D2 is off. The energy is transferred from the input through the transformer, to the inductor L and the load. The output capacitor provides the required Vo. Energy flows through the transformer in only one direction hence an additional winding with D3 is needed to bring the magnetizing current of the transformer to zero this prevents transformer saturation.

When the switch is turned off

The voltage across the primary winding reverses its polarity and D2 is forward biased. Current now flows through the output capacitor and the inductor L energizing L. During both the half cycles the output inductor provide current to the load similar to the buck converter.

Push-Pull Converter
Transformer isolated buck topology. Provides good regulation,moderate efficiency and easily adoptable to multiple outputs. Suitable for low voltage applications only.

The input is applied to the center tap of the primary of the transformer and the power switches are connected across each section of the primary winding. The secondary voltage is full wave rectified and applied to the buck style LC section. The two switches share the switching function by alternately turning on and off .

When each switch turns on,current flows through its side of primary. Simultaneously ,one half of the center tapped secondary begins to conduct, forward biasing its respective diode and letting the current in to the load. Unlike the fly back topology ,the transformer does not store energy, but output current is drawn when either switch is on

When S1 is turned on

Vs is applied to lower half of the transformer primary as a result voltage is induced in both the secondary windings. This voltage in the upper half secondary forward biases diode D1. The output voltage V0= * vs.

When S2 is turned on

-Vs is applied across the upper half of the primary winding . A voltage of vs.*N2/N1 is induced in both transformer secondaries. Diode D2 gets forward biased and V0= * vs.

Half bridge converter


Transformer isolated buck topology Not suitable for high power applications Peak current in this topology is twice as the push-pull technology with identical power output.

Half bridge topology has only one primary winding which is connected between a pull-up/pull down configuration of power switches and center node between two series capacitors. The capacitor center node voltage is fixed approximately at the half the input voltage and ground by the two power switches. Only half the input voltage vs/2 appears across the primary winding at any time.

When s1 is turned on

Voltage of c1 comes across the transformer primary and v1=vs/2 Voltage induced in the secondary is v2=vs.*N2/(2*N1) D1 is forward biased.

When s2 is turned on
-vs/2 is applied across transformer primary from c2 i.e. v1=-vs/2. Voltage induced in the secondary is v2=-vs.*N2/(2*N1). Average output voltage v0=0.5* * vs. (= N2/N1)

Full-bridge converter
Transformer isolated buck topology. Suitable for higher power applications. Power handling capacity is the double the half bridge converter.

Operates with minimum voltage and current stress on power mosfets. Balancing capacitors in half bridge are replaced by switches. Two of the 4 power switches are turned on simultaneously during each conduction cycle i.e. Sw1 and s4or sw2 and s3. This places full input voltage across the primary winding which reduces peak currents flowing through it compared to half-bridge converter.

When Sw1 and s4 are turned on

Vs appears across transformer primary and secondary voltage v2=vs.*N2/N1= * vs. Diode D1 gets forward biased and output voltage V0= * vs. ( =N2/N1)

When sw2 and s3 are turned on


The primary voltage is reversed i.e.v1=-vs. and v2=-vs.*N2/N1. D2 begins to conduct and the output voltage is V0= * vs. ( =N2/N1)

Fly back converter


Isolated or transformer version of buck-boost converter. Its versatile uses less components reducing overall cost.

When the switch is On

Current flows through the primary circuit and energy is stored in the primary winding of the transformer. The longer the on time more energy is stored in the primary windings This energy is not allowed to pass through the outputs stage because the diode D is reverse biased. Output voltage is supplied by capacitor C .

When the switch is off

The field in the primary winding begins to collapse, reversing the voltage polarity of the winding. Diode D is forward biased and starts conducting a current id. Energy stored in the transformer secondary is delivered partly to load and partly to charge the capacitor C.

Comparison of converter Topology topologies Power ratings Typical


Buck Boost Buck-Boost Fly back Push-pull Half-bridge Full Bridge <100 watt <100watt <100 watt <150 watt >150watt 100-400watt >400watt 78 80 80 80 75 75 73

efficiency(%)

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

PWM MODULATED DC TO DC CONVERTERS

Control principle

A dc to dc converter must provide regulated dc output voltage under varying load and input voltage conditions. The control of output voltage must be provided in a closed loop using principles of negative feedback. The two common closed loop control methods for dc to dc converters are Voltage mode control Current mode control.

PWM DC to DC converter

From

the derivations for the boost, buck and buckboost converter it can be seen that changing the duty cycle controls the steady-state output with respect to the input voltage. This is a key concept governing all inductor based switching circuits.

The most common switching control method, used in DC-DC converters is pulse-width modulation (PWM). This method takes a sample of the output voltage and subtracts this from a reference voltage to establish a small error signal (VERROR). This error signal is compared to an oscillator ramp signal. The comparator outputs a digital output (PWM) that operates the power switch. When the circuit output voltage changes, VERROR also changes and thus causes the comparator threshold to change. Consequently, the output pulse width (PWM) also changes. This duty cycle change then moves the output voltage to reduce to error signal to zero, thus completing the control loop.

Voltage mode control

In the voltage-mode control scheme shown in the fig, the converter output voltage is sensed and subtracted from an external reference voltage in an error amplifier. The error amplifier produces a control voltage that is compared to a constant-amplitude saw tooth waveform. The comparator produces a PWM signal which is fed to drivers of controllable switches in the dcdc converter. The duty ratio of the PWM signal depends on the value of the control voltage. . An important advantage of the voltage-mode control is its simple hardware implementation and flexibility. The error amplifier in Fig. reacts fast to changes in the converter output voltage. Thus, the voltage-mode control provides good load regulation, that is, regulation against variations in the load.

Current mode control

An additional inner control loop feeds back an inductor current signal. This current signal, converted into its voltage analog, is compared to the control voltage. This modification of replacing the saw tooth waveform of the voltage-mode control scheme by a converter current signal significantly alters the dynamic behavior of the converter. The converter takes on some characteristics of a current source. The output current in PWM dcdc converters is either equal to the average value of the output inductor current or is a product of an average inductor current and a function of the duty ratio.

In practical implementations of the current-mode control, it is feasible to sense the peak inductor current instead of the average value. Since the peak inductor current is equal to the peak switch current, the latter can be used in the inner loop which often simplifies the current sensor. The main disadvantage of the current-mode control is its complicated hardware which includes a need to compensate the control voltage by ramp signals.

Resonant and soft switching DC-DC converters

A soft-switching DC to DC power converter minimizes switching losses from a no load condition to a full load condition while operating at fixed frequency. Hard switching refers to the stressful switching behavior of the power electronic devices. During the turn-on and turn-off processes, the power device has to withstand high voltage and current simultaneously, resulting in high switching losses and stress. The resonant principle is used in power converters by incorporating a resonant LC circuit with the power switch . The power switch is on and off in the same manner as in PWM converter, but the tank circuit forces the current through the switch into a sinusoidal form.

The actual conduction period of the switch is governed by the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. A resonant circuit keep the pulse width constant and vary the frequency where as all pwm control circuits, keep the frequency constant by varying the pulse width. The switching losses are reduced, leading to a higher efficiency and EMI is greatly reduced. The major application of resonant technology is in aircraft, satellite and audio/video equipment where low EMI levels are required.

Resonant switch

The resonant switch consists of semiconductor element and resonant LC elements. As resonant circuits generate sinusoidal waveforms we can operate the power switches either at zero current or zero voltage points in the resonant waveform. Because of this there are two types of resonant switches . zero current switches (ZCS) zero voltage switches(ZVS).

ZC Resonant Switch

In a ZC resonant switch, an inductor Lr is connected in series with a power switch S in order to achieve zerocurrent switching (ZCS). If the switch S is a unidirectional switch, the switch current is allowed to resonate in the positive half cycle only. At turn-on, the switch current will rise slowly from zero. It will then oscillate, because of the resonance between Lr and Cr. Finally, the switch can be commutated at the next zero current duration. The objective of this type of switch is to shape the switch current waveform during conduction time in order to create a zero-current condition for the switch to turn off.

Period 1" The power switch is off, and the diode D is conducting the load current. Period 2: The power switch turns on. The voltage across the switch makes a step change. The resonant capacitor appears to be short circuited at this time because of the conducting diode. Therefore, the power switch sees only the inductor on turning on. Therefore, the switch current cannot change instantaneously, and hence increases linearly from zero. This continues until all the load current is taken up by the current through the switch and the resonant inductor, displacing the current through the diode.

Period 3: As the diode current is displaced, it turns off in a zerocurrent fashion, and the resonant capacitor is released into the circuit. Now, the current waveform assumes a sinusoidal shape as the circuit resonates. During this period, the capacitor voltage lags the current waveform by 90 . The switch current proceeds over its crest, and passes through zero. The resonant inductor's current then starts to flow in the opposite direction through the antiparallel diode D . Period 4: When the inductor current passes through zero, the resonant capacitor begins to dump its charge into the load, thus reducing its voltage in a linear ramp. The diode begins to conduct. When the capacitor voltage reaches zero, the diode takes up the entire current, and the circuit awaits the next conduction period of the power switch. As the power switch and diode operate at zero current on both edges, switching losses in the power semiconductors are greatly reduced.

ZV Resonant Switch

In a ZV resonant switch, a capacitor Cr is connected in parallel with the switch S for achieving zero-voltage switching . If the switch S is a unidirectional switch, the voltage across the capacitor Cr can oscillate freely in both positive and negative half-cycle. Thus, the resonant switch can operate in full-wave mode. If a diode is connected in anti-parallel with the unidirectional switch, the resonant capacitor voltage is clamped by the diode to zero during the negative half-cycle. The resonant switch will then operate in half-wave mode. The objective of a ZV switch is to use the resonant circuit to shape the switch voltage waveform during the off time in order to create a zero-voltage condition for the switch to turn on.

Operation Of ZV switch

Period 1" The power switch is on. The switch current is determined by the converter stage configuration. The resonant inductor is saturated and is effectively short circuited. The input voltage appears across the resonant capacitor, and the diode D is off. Period 2: The resonant period is initiated by the power switch turning off. As the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the power switch voltage remains constant while the current reduces to zero

Period 3: The capacitor voltage starts falling together with the inductor current. The diode starts to conduct, taking over the load current being from the resonant inductor which gradually falls out of saturation. The tank circuit begins to resonate. The capacitor voltage tings back above the input voltage, at which point the current is conducted by the antiparallel diode. Period 4: The power switch turns on. The diode D is also on at this time, and the capacitor is shunted out of the circuit. Therefore the switch current increases linearly through the resonant inductor When this current exceeds the load current being conducted through the diode, the diode turns off. Then the resonant inductor can enter saturation and await the next cycle.

Resonant mode control

Resonant mode control

Control methods for resonant converters are variable frequency ones. Either the on-time is fixed and the off time is variable or vice-versa. The fundamental blocks are a wide-band error amplifier, a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and a temperaturestable one-shot timer. The output voltage is compared with the reference, and the error voltage is used to drive the VCO. The VCO output triggers the one-shot whose pulse duration is fixed as required by the converter. These control techniques are based on the voltage-mode of control.

A sample Application

Block Diagram of Satellite Power system:

Satellite power system:


Electrical energy is one of the vital elements that keep a satellite operational in orbit . Solar panels convert solar energy to electrical energy. From there the power system processes, stores, regulates and distributes the electrical energy to loads mainly comprising analog and digital semiconductors, and RF, optical, sensor, laser and electromechanical devices. The dc-dc converters shown in Figure typically receive power from a space-craft power bus and regulate their outputs to a narrow voltage range. The power bus volt-age can range from 20 Vdc to 120 Vdc.

The voltage level is mission and satellite design dependent. Electronics for both the payload and bus system typically require 3.3 Vdc to 28 Vdc . The voltage requirements decline toward 1 V and less for digital loads. DC to DC converters are used to provide varying voltages in a satellite power system Key requirements for the converters include reli-ability, power efficiency, output-voltage regu-lation, and output ripple and noise.

Advanced Dc to Dc converters

Fundamental Circuits Developed

Buck Converter Boost Converter Buck-Boost Converter Positive Output Luo-Converter Negative Output Luo-Converter Double Output Luo-Converter Cuk-Converter SEPIC Forward Converter Push-Pull Converter Half-Bridge Converter Bridge Converter Fly-Back Converter ZETA Converter Positive Output Luo-Converter Negative Output Luo-Converter 7 Self-Lift Converter Modified P/O Luo-Converter Double Output Luo-Converter

Transformer

Voltage Lift

Super-Lift

Positive Output Cascade Boost Converter Negative Output Cascade Boost Converter Positive Output Super-Lift Luo-Converter Negative Output Super-Lift Luo-Converter

Resonant converters

These process power in sinusoidal form not in a pulsed form They operate in two modes Continuous mode Discontinuous mode The resonant control circuit keep the frequency and vary the pulse width

SEPIC (single ended primary inductor converter)

It can both step up and step down the input voltages while maintaining the same ground reference

When the switch is turned on

When the switch is turned on the input inductor is charged from the source and the second inductor is charged from the first capacitor no energy is supplied to the load capacitor during this

When the switch is turned off

When the switch is off the both the inductors provide current to the load capacitor.

applications

Architecture specially suited for battery operated equipment and battery charger a

Fly back converters in detail

Offline switch mode power supplies


AC

RFI FILTER

I/P RECTIFIER AND FILTER

SWITCHING ELEMENT

ISOLATION POWER T/F

O/P RECTIFIER AND FILTER

vout

FEEDBACK AND CONTROL

I/O ISOLATION

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen