Chapter 10: Practical Transformers

Introduction
In the real world, transformers are not ideal
windings have resistance the cores are not infinitely permeable the flux produced by the primary is not completely captured by the secondary leakage flux must be accounted iron core produces eddy-current and hysteresis losses

Imperfect Cores
What happens when an infinitely permeable core is replaced by an iron core having hysteresis and eddy-current losses?

core imperfections are represented by Rm and Xm in parallel with the primary winding Rm models the iron losses Xm models the permeability the current Im flowing in Xm is the magnetizing current that creates the flux m the total current I0 needed to produce the flux is called the exciting current

Rm and Xm can be measured experimentally by

the power values are measured under no-load conditions

Loose Couplings
Consider now a perfect core but the windings are loosely coupled
the primary and secondary coils have negligible resistance the primary is connected to a source Eg o the coil draws no current to drive a mutual flux m1a the flux produces a voltage E2 on the secondary coil under no-load conditions, I2 is zero and no mmf exist to drive any leakage flux

o the flux produces a counter voltage Ep that equals Eg

Loose Couplings
Now a load Z is connected across the secondary
currents I1 and I2 immediately begin to flow, and are related by N1 I1 = N2 I2 I2 produces an mmf N2 I2 and I1 produces an mmf N1I1 in the opposite direction mmf N2I2 forms a flux F2, consisting of a mutually coupled flux m2 and a leakage flux f2 mmf N1I1 forms a flux F1, consisting of a mutually coupled flux m1 and a leakage flux f1

The new mmfs upset m1a balance

resolving the modeling conflicts o combine m1 and m2 into a single mutual flux m o Es consists of two parts: E2(N2m) and Ef2(N2f2) o Ep consists of two parts: E1(N1m) and Ef1(N1f1)

Leakage Reactance
The four induced voltages can be rearranged
the rearrangement does not change the induced voltages Ef2 is a voltage drop across a reactance Xf2 = Ef2/I2 Ef1 is a voltage drop across a reactance Xf1 = Ef1/I1

Imperfect Transformers
Example a large 120 V, 60 Hz transformer with no loads draws an exciting current I0 of 5 A at rated voltage a wattmeter test shows the iron losses to be 180 W find
a. b. the reactive power absorbed by the core Rm, Xm, If, and Im

Example the secondary winding consist of 180 turns, and under load the winding draws 18 A, producing 20 mWb of mutual flux and 3 mWb of leakage flux calculate
a. b. the voltages induced in the secondary winding the secondary leakage reactance

Equivalent Circuit
The primary and secondary windings are composed of copper or alluminum conductors
conductors exhibit resistance to the current flow the leakage reactance can also be modelled as a series inductance

the core excitation and losses are modeled as a shunt circuit

combining all elements with the ideal transformer forms an equivalent circuit for practical transformers

Losses
As in all machines, a transformer has losses
I2R losses in the primary and secondary windings hysteresis losses and eddy-current losses in the core stray losses due to currents induced in the tank and metal supports by the primary and secondary leakage fluxes

Losses appear in the form of heat

produces an increase in termperature drop in efficiency
o iron losses depend on the mutual flux and hence the applied voltage o the winding losses depend on the current drawn by the load

Losses
Example the nameplate of a distribution transformer indicates 250 kVA, 60 Hz, 4160 V primary, 480 V secondary calculate
a. b. c. the nominal primary and secondary currents if the core losses are 1200 W and the full-load copper losses are 1800 W what is the transformer efficiency? when is the transformer most efficient?

Voltage Regulation
Important attribute of a transformer
constantly held primary voltage impact of secondary voltage due to changing loads

Voltage Regulation
Example a single-phase transformer rated at 3 MVA, 69 kV/4160 V with an internal impedance of 127 ohms as seen on the primary
a. b. calculate the rated primary and secondary currents the voltage regulation from no-load to full load for a 2000 kW resistive load (at unity power factor) knowing that the primary supply voltage is fixed at 69 kV The primary and secondary currents if the secondary is accidentally short-circuited

a.

Measuring Impedances
We can measure using two tests the actual values of Xm, Rm, Xp and Rp for a given transformer voltages, currents, and real powers are measured open-circuit test, secondary opened
o rated voltage applied to the primary

short-circuit test, secondary shorted

o rated current applied to primary

Measuring Impedances
Example 500 kVA, 69 kV/4160V, 60 Hz transformer with terminals X1 and X2 shorted
a. b. measurements: Esc = 2600 V, Isc = 4 A, Psc = 2400 W find the HV leakage reactance and resistance values

Example terminals H1 and H2 are opened, voltage applied to terminals X1 and X2

a. b. measurements: Es = 4160 V, I0 = 2 A, Pm = 5000 W find HV magnetization impedance

Homework
Problems: 10-18, 10-23, 10-25, 10-30, 10-31