Research Methodology

BY Dr. J K SACHDEVA

BY

Dr. J. K. SACHDEVA

M.B.A. (FINANCE), PGDMM, PH. D (DEVELOPMENT STUDIES)

Ex-SUPERINTENDENT OF CUSTOMS (P), Mumbai

FACULTY, GNIMS, Matunga, Mumbai Hon Editor Journal of Global Economy MEMBER

INDIAN SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

VISITING FACULTY/COUNSELOR ITM, KHARGHAR IGNOU, STUDY CENTRE, SATHEYE COLLEGE, VILLE PARLE JDC-BYTCO, NASIK Chetana Institute of Management and Research, Bandra (E) SPECIAL SPEAKER ON MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS ALL INDIA RADIO FM , IGNOU-GYAN VANI PROGRAMMES

Contact me
9892728281 26670461 sachdevajk@hotmail.com www.rcssindia.org

Benefits of research to whom

As a graduate student...

To be able to read and understand the empirical literature in your field; to become a critical consumer of information.

As a graduate student preparing for a thesis or dissertation

To be able to both design and implement your thesis or dissertation as well as future studies that interest you.

Benefits to whom

As a future practitioner

To be able to intelligently participate in research projects, evaluations, and studies undertaken by your institution.
To understand the difference between scientifically acquired knowledge and other kinds of information.

As an educated citizen ...

What Research Is Not

Research isnt information gathering:

Gathering information from resources such books or magazines isnt research. No contribution to new knowledge.
Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesnt constitute research. No contribution to new knowledge although this might make existing knowledge more accessible.

Research isnt the transportation of facts:

What Research Is

Research is:

the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.1

Whats the Difference Between Method and Methodology?

Method: Techniques for gathering evidence The various ways of proceeding in gathering information Methodology: The underlying theory and analysis of how research does or should proceed, often influenced by discipline

Epistemology, Methodology, and Method

a research method is a technique for (or way of proceeding in) gathering evidence" while "methodology is a theory and analysis of how research does or should proceed" and "an epistemology is a theory of knowledge"

"It is the theory that decides what can be observed."

Albert Einstein

Research Characteristics
1.

2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Originates with a question or problem. Requires clear articulation of a goal. Follows a specific plan or procedure. Often divides main problem into subproblems. Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis. Accepts certain critical assumptions. Requires collection and interpretation of data. Cyclical (helical) in nature.

Research Projects

Research begins with a problem.

This problem need not be Earth-shaking.

Identifying this problem can actually be the hardest part of research.

In general, good research projects should:

Address an important question. Advance knowledge.

Research Project Pitfalls

The following kinds of projects usually dont make for good research:

Self-enlightenment. Comparing data sets. Correlating data sets. Problems with yes / no answers.

High-Quality Research
(1 of 2)

Good research requires:

The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly defined.

The process to be clearly explained so that it can be reproduced and verified by other researchers. A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as possible.

High-Quality Research
(2 of 2)

Good research requires:

Highly ethical standards be applied.

All limitations be documented. Data be adequately analyzed and explained. All findings be presented unambiguously and all conclusions be justified by sufficient evidence.

Sources of Research Problems

Observation. Literature reviews. Professional conferences. Experts.

Stating the Research Problem

Once youve identified a research problem:

State that problem clearly and completely. Determine the feasibility of the research. Completely researchable units. Small in number. Add up to the total problem. Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the data.

Identify subproblems:

Research

Acquisition of Knowledge Knowledge v/s Information

(Theoretically, concerned with developing, exploring, or testing theories)

Theory
What exists? Why exists? What will happen in future?

How to acquire Knowledge?

Inductive Reasoning
( works moving from specific observation to broader generalisation, bottom approach)

Deductive Reasoning
( more general to more specific or top down approach)

Deductive Reasoning
Theory
Hypothesis Observation

Confirmation

Inductive Reasoning
Theory Hypothesis
Pattern
Observation

Positivism
Goal of Knowledge is to describe the phenomena that are experienced, There is interdependence of observation and theory, our observations are theory laden

Scientific thought Francis Bacon

Rene Descartes John Stuart Karl Popper Thomas Kuhn Feyer bend Steven Hagen

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.

There is often a 1-1 correspondence between a subproblem and a hypothesis. Hypotheses can direct later research activities since they can help determine the nature of the research and methods applied.

Delimitations

All research has limitations and thus certain work that will not be performed. The work that will not be undertaken is described as the delimitations of the research.

Definitions

Define each technical term as it is used in relation to your research project.

This helps remove significant ambiguity from the research itself by ensuring that reviewers, while they may not agree with your definitions, at least know what youre talking about.

Assumptions

Assumptions are those things that the researcher is taking for granted.

For example: a given test instrument accurately and consistently measures the phenomenon in question.

As a general rule youre better off documenting an assumption than ignoring it.

Overlooked assumptions provide a prime source of debate about a research projects results.

Importance of the Study

Many research problems have a kind of theoretical feel about them. Such projects often need to be justified:

What is the research projects practical value?

Without this justification, it will prove difficult to convince others that the problem in question is worth study.

Research Proposals

Research proposals are documents that describe the intended research including:

Problem and subproblems. Hypotheses. Delimitations. Definitions. Assumptions. Importance. Literature review.

Literature Review

A literature review is a necessity.

Without this step, you wont know if your problem has been solved or what related research is already underway.
Start searching professional journals. Begin with the most recent articles you can find. Keep track of relevant articles in a bibliography. Dont be discouraged if work on the topic is already underway.

When performing the review:

Literature Review Pitfalls

(1 of 2)

Be very careful to check your sources when doing your literature review. Many trade magazines are not peer reviewed.

Professional conferences and journals often have each article reviewed by multiple people before it is even recommended for publication. The IEEE and ACM digital libraries are good places to start looking for legitimate research.

Literature Review Pitfalls

(2 of 2)

The Internet can be a good source of information. It is also full of pseudo-science and poor research. Make sure you verify the claims of any documentation that has not been peer reviewed by other professionals in the computing industry.

Processes & Methodologies

Research Process.

Common Methodologies.
Methodology Comparison.

Research Process

Research is an extremely cyclic process.

Later stages might necessitate a review of earlier work.

This isnt a weakness of the process but is part of the built-in error correction machinery. Because of the cyclic nature of research, it can be difficult to determine where to start and when to stop.

Step 1: A Question Is Raised

A question occurs to or is posed to the researcher for which that researcher has no answer.

This doesnt mean that someone else doesnt already have an answer.

The question needs to be converted to an appropriate problem statement like that documented in a research proposal.

Step 2: Suggest Hypotheses

The researcher generates intermediate hypotheses to describe a solution to the problem.

This is at best a temporary solution since there is as yet no evidence to support either the acceptance or rejection of these hypotheses.

Step 3: Literature Review

The available literature is reviewed to determine if there is already a solution to the problem.

Existing solutions do not always explain new observations. The existing solution might require some revision or even be discarded.

Step 4: Literature Evaluation

Its possible that the literature review has yielded a solution to the proposed problem.

This means that you havent really done research.

On the other hand, if the literature review turns up nothing, then additional research activities are justified.

Step 5: Acquire Data

The researcher now begins to gather data relating to the research problem.

The means of data acquisition will often change based on the type of the research problem. This might entail only data gathering, but it could also require the creation of new measurement instruments.

Step 6: Data Analysis

The data that were gathered in the previous step are analyzed as a first step in ascertaining their meaning. As before, the analysis of the data does not constitute research.

This is basic number crunching.

Step 7: Data Interpretation

The researcher interprets the newly analyzed data and suggests a conclusion.

This can be difficult. Keep in mind that data analysis that suggests a correlation between two variables cant automatically be interpreted as suggesting causality between those variables.

Step 8: Hypothesis Support

The data will either support the hypotheses or they wont.

This may lead the researcher to cycle back to an earlier step in the process and begin again with a new hypothesis. This is one of the self-correcting mechanisms associated with the scientific method.

Common Methodologies

Methodologies are high-level approaches to conducting research.

The individual steps within the methodology might vary based on the research being performed. Quantitative. Qualitative.

Two commonly used research methodologies:

Methodology Comparison
Quantitative

Qualitative

Explanation, prediction Test theories Known variables Large sample Standardized instruments Deductive

Explanation, description Build theories Unknown variables Small sample Observations, interviews Inductive

An Overview of Empirical Research Methods

Descriptive (Qualitative) Ethnography Case Study Suvey/Sampling Focus Groups Discourse/Text Analysis Quantitative Description Prediction/Classification

Experimental (Quantitative) True Experiment Quasi-Experiment Meta-Analysis

Assessing Methods

Research Question(s) is/are key Methods must answer the research question(s) Methodology guides application Epistemology guides analysis

Ethnographies
+

Observational field work done in the actual context being studied Focus on how individuals interrelate in their own environment (and the influence of this environment) Difficult to interpret/analyze Time consuming/expensive Can influence subject behavior

Case Studies
+

Focus is on individual or small group Able to conduct a comprehensive analysis from a comparison of cases Allows for identification of variables or phenomenon to be studied Time consuming Depth rather than breadth Not necessarily representative

Survey Research
+

+ -

An efficient means of gathering large amounts of data Can be anonymous and inexpensive Feedback often incomplete Wording of instrument can bias feedback Details often left out

Focus Groups
+

Aid in understanding audience, group, users Small group interaction more than individual response Helps identify and fill gaps in current knowledge re: perceptions, attitudes, feelings, etc. Does not give statistics Marketing tools seen as suspect Analysis subjective

Discourse/Text Analysis
+

+ -

Examines actual discourse produced for a particular purpose (job, school) Helps in understanding of context, production, audience, and text Schedule for analysis not demanding Labor intensive Categories often fluid, making analysis difficult

Quantitative Descriptive Studies

+

+ + +

Isolates systematically the most important variables (often from case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via survey or questionnaire) Possible to collect large amounts of data Not as disruptive Biases not as likely Data restricted to information available

Discourse/Text Analysis
+

+ -

Examines actual discourse produced for a particular purpose (job, school) Helps in understanding of context, production, audience, and text Schedule for analysis not demanding Labor intensive Categories often fluid, making analysis difficult

Quantitative Descriptive Studies

+

+ + +

Isolates systematically the most important variables (often from case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via survey or questionnaire) Possible to collect large amounts of data Not as disruptive Biases not as likely Data restricted to information available

Prediction and Classification Studies

Goal is to predict behaviors: Prediction forecasts and interval variable (Diagnostic/TAAS scores)

Classification forecasts a nominal variable (Major selection after taking 2311) Important in industry, education to predict behaviors Need substantial population Restricted range of variables can cause misinterpretation Variables cannot be added together; must be weighted and looked at in context of other variables

+ -

Naturalistic; allows for subjects to interact with environment Can use statistical analysis Seeks to further develop theory (not to influence action); Prescientific Coding schemes often arise from interplay between data and researchers knowledge of theory

Positive Aspects of Descriptive/Qualitative Research

Impossible to overlay structure Impossible to impose control Subject pool often limited, not representative Seen as more subjective, less rigorous Beneficial only in terms of initial investigation to form hypothesis

Problems with Descriptive/Qualitative Research

Experimental Research: True Experiment

+ + +

Random sampling, or selection, of subjects (which are also stratified) Introduction of a treatment Use of a control group for comparing subjects who dont receive treatment with those who do Adherence to scientific method (seen as positive, too) Must have both internal and external validity Treatment and control might seem artificial

Experimental Research: QuasiExperiment

+

+ -

Similar to Experiment, except that the subjects are not randomized. Intact groups are often used (for example, students in a classroom). To draw more fully on the power of the experimental method, a pretest may be employed. Employ treatment, control, and scientific method Act of control and treatment makes situation artificial Small subject pools

Meta-Analysis
+

+ +

+
-

Takes the results of true and quasi-experiments and identifies interrelationships of conclusions Systematic Replicable Summarizes overall results C/C apples and oranges? Quality of studies used?

Positive Aspects of Experimental Research

Tests the validity of generalizations Seen as rigorous Identifies a cause-and-effect relationship Seen as more objective, less subjective Can be predictive

Problems with Experimental Research

Generalizations need to be qualified according to limitation of research methods employed Controlled settings dont mirror actual conditions; unnatural Difficult to isolate a single variable Doesnt allow for self-reflection (built-in)

Testing the Waters

How do you come up with a good research question? How do you determine if the method you plan to use will answer your question? What epistemology should you use to analyze data?

Quantitative Methods

Samplingst Testing of Hypothesis Chi Square Test ANOVA Multivariate Analysis

Thanks