Lecture 4 chap 35

Outline
Structure and function of respiratory systems The process of respiratory Related diseases

The anatomy of the respiratory systems

The position of the lungs within the rib cage

The larynx, trachea and bronchi

The pulmonary alveoli

The human body contains 300 million alveoli (thin-walled air sacs, 0.3 mm in diameter) located on the terminal branches of the bronchial tree. They are surrounded by a dense network of pulmonary capillaries and have a total surface area of about 100m2.

The major structures and functions of the respiratory system

The process of respiration

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. - Ventilation - External respiration - Transport of O2 and CO2 - Internal respiration - Cell respiration

1. Ventilation: O2 in the inspired air to the alveoli in our lungs

The Mechanics of Breathing

The Mechanics of Breathing

A. Relationships of Pressure 1. atmospheric air pressure 760 mm Hg (at sea level) 2. negative air pressure - LESS than 760 mm Hg 3. positive air pressure - MORE than 760 mm Hg 4. intrapleural pressure - pressure within the pleural "balloon" which surrounds the lung 5. intrapulmonary pressure - pressure within the alveoli (tiny sacs) of the lung itself

B. Inspiration 1. diaphragm muscle contracts, increasing thoracic cavity size in the superior-inferior dimension 2. external intercostal muscles contract, expanding lateral & anterior-posterior dimension 3. INCREASED volume (about 0.5 liter) DECREASED pulmonary pressure (-1 mm Hg) air rushes into lungs to fill alveoli 4. deep/forced inspirations - as during exercise and pulmonary disease *scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, pectorals are used for more volume expansion of thorax

B. Expiration 1. quiet expiration (exhalation) - simple elasticity of the lungs DECREASES volume INCREASED pulmonary pressure -> movement of air out of the lungs 2. forced expiration - contraction of abdominal wall muscles (i.e. obliques & transversus abdominus) further DECREASES volume beyond relaxed point ----> further INCREASE in pulmonary pressure ---> more air moves out

Mechanic of breathing

Factors holding lungs AGAINST the thorax wall:

1.Surface tension holding the "visceral" and "parietal" pleura together 2.Intrapulmonary pressure ALWAYS slightly greater than intrapleural pressure by 4 mm Hg 3.Atmospheric pressure acting on the lungs a.atelectasis (collapsed lung) - hole in pleural "balloon" causes equalization of pressure and collapse of the lung b. pneumothorax - abnormal air in the intrapleural space, can lead to collapsed lung

Factors facilitating lung movement AWAY from thorax wall:

1. Elasticity of lungs allows them to assume smallest shape for given pressure conditions 2. Fluid film on alveoli allows them to assume smallest shape for given pressure conditions

Respiratory muscles

Surfactant and Its Effect on Surface Tension. Surfactant is a surface active agent in water, which means that it greatly reduces the surface tension of water. It is secreted by

special surfactant-secreting epithelial cells called type II alveolar

epithelial cells, which constitute about 10 per cent of the surface area of the alveoli. These cells are granular, containing lipid

inclusions that are secreted in the surfactant into the alveoli.

Surfactant is a complex mixture of several phospholipids, proteins,

and ions. The most important components are the phospholipid

dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, surfactant apoproteins, and calcium ions. The dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, along with several less

important phospholipids, is responsible for reducing the surface tension.

It does this by not dissolving uniformly in the fluid lining the alveolar surface. Instead, part of the molecule dissolves, while the remainder spreads over the surface of the water in the alveoli. This surface has from one twelfth to one half the surface tension of a pure water surface.
2 X Surface tension Radius of alveolus

Pressure =

In quantitative terms, the surface tension of different water fluids is

approximately the following:

- pure water, 72 dynes/cm; - normal fluids lining the alveoli but without surfactant, 50 dynes/cm;

- normal fluids lining the alveoli and with normal amounts of

surfactant included, between 5 and 30 dynes/cm.

Function of pulmonary surfactant - To reduce surface tension. - To increase pulmonary compliance. - To prevent the lung from collapsing at the end of expiration.

Respiratory volumes and capacities

Respiratory volumes and capacities of healthy adult Volume

Tidal volume (TV) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) Exspiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Quantity of air
500ml 3000ml 1000ml

Description
Volume moved in or out of the lung during quiet breathing. Volume that can be inhaled during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume. Volume that can be exhaled during forced breathing in addition to tidal volume. Maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after taking the deepest breath possible VC = TV + IRV + ERV.

Vital capacity (VC)

4500ml

Residual volume (RV)

Total lung capacity (TLC)

1500ml
6000ml

Volume that cannot be exhaled

Total volume of air that the lung can hold: TCL = VC + RV.

2. External respiration: oxygen "travelling down the

concentration gradient", from the (high) concentration in the lungs, to the (low) concentration in the blood. into the blood stream

3. Transport of O2 and CO2 via the blood stream to the tissues is done by Hemoglobin

Association & Dissociation of O2 + Hemoglobin

Factors regulate AFFINITY of O2

Partial Pressure of O2 temperature blood pH (acidity) concentration of diphosphoglycerate (DPG)

Effects of Partial Pressure of O2 1. oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve a. 104 mm (lungs) - 100% saturation (20 ml/100 ml) b. 40 mm (tissues) - 75% saturation (15 ml/100 ml) c. right shift - Decreased Affinity, more O2 unloaded d. left shift- Increased Affinity, less O2 unloaded Effects of Temperature 1. HIGHER Temperature --> Decreased Affinity (right) 2. LOWER Temperature --> Increased Affinity (left) Effects of pH (Acidity) 1. HIGHER pH --> Increased Affinity (left) 2. LOWER pH --> Decreased Affinity (right) "Bohr Effect" a. more Carbon Dioxide, lower pH (more H+), more O2 release Effects of Diphosphoglycerate (DPG) 1. DPG - produced by anaerobic processes in RBCs 2. HIGHER DPG > Decreased Affinity (right) 3. thyroxine, testosterone, epinephrine, NE - increase RBC metabolism and DPG production, cause RIGHT shift

4. Internal respiration
External respiration occurring between the pulmonary alveolus and its capillaries; the other is internal respiration occurring between the tissue cells and the body capillaries.

Internal respiration

External respiration

Related diseases
Asthma Cancer Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Cystic fibrosis

5. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. Nutrients include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2).

Asthma
Asthma is caused by a restriction of respiratory airways. When an Asthma attack happens, the airways of the bronchioles constrict, causing extreme difficulty in breathing

Lung cancer
is another common disease of the respiratory system. In most Americans it is caused by the use of tobacco, or by the exposure to second hand tobacco smoke. In 90% of the cases the patient has at one time, or currently is a user of tobacco.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

is a respiratory system disease which impedes a person from getting enough oxygen to their lungs due to the loss of elastic quality of aveoli Common features of COPD a. almost all have smoking history b. dyspnea - chronic "gasping" for air c. frequent coughing and infections d. often leads to respiratory failure

Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease of your secretory glands, including the glands that make mucus and sweat. Cystic fibrosis causes mucus builds up in the lungs and blocks airways. The buildup of mucus makes it easy for bacteria to grow. This leads to repeated, serious lung infections. Over time, these infections can severely damage your lungs