Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
communication
COMPUTER NETWORKS(CS1302)
by A.Asha
AIM:
– To introduce the concept ,terminologies and
technologies used in modern data
communication and computer networking.
• OBJECTIVES:
– To introduce the students the functions of
different layers.
– To introduce IEEE standard employed in
computer networking.
– To make students to get familiarized with
different protocols and network components
Unit I
• DATA COMMUNICATIONS
8
• Components – Direction of Data flow
– networks – Components and
Categories – types of Connections –
Topologies –Protocols and Standards
– ISO / OSI model – Transmission
Media – Coaxial Cable – Fiber Optics –
Line Coding – Modems – RS232
Interfacing sequences
Line Configuration -
Topology
• physical arrangement of stations on
medium
– point to point - two stations
• such as between two routers / computers
– multi point - multiple stations
• traditionally mainframe computer and
terminals
• now typically a local area network (LAN)
Line Configuration - Duplex
• simplex
– one direction eg. television
• half duplex (two-way alternate)
– only one station may transmit at a time
– requires one data path
• full duplex (two-way simultaneous)
– simultaneous transmission and reception
between two stations
– requires two data paths
• separate media or frequencies used for
each direction or echo canceling
Transmission Terminology
• greater capacity
– data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• smaller size & weight
• lower attenuation
• electromagnetic isolation
• greater repeater spacing
– 10s of km at least
Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
• uses total internal reflection to transmit
light
– effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015
Hz
• can use several different light sources
– Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts
longer
– Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• more efficient, has greater data rate
• relation of wavelength, type & data rate
Cable Modems
• dedicate two cable TV channels to data
transfer
• each channel shared by number of
subscribers, using statistical TDM
• Downstream
– cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
– active subscribers share downstream capacity
– also allocates upstream time slots to
subscribers
• Upstream
– user requests timeslots on shared upstream
Cable Modem Scheme
UNIT II
• 2 types of errors
• a) Single-bit error.
• b) Burst-bit error.
• parity
– parity bit set so character has even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity) number
of ones
– even number of bit errors goes
undetected
Error Detection Process
4 types of redundancy
checks
• a) Vertical redundancy checks (VRC). The
most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection
is the vertical
• redundancy check (VRC) often called a parity check. In this
technique a redundant bit 3 called a parity bit, is appended to
every data unit so, that the total number of 0’s in the unit
(including the parity bit) becomes even.
• b) Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).
In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is
divided into rows and a
• redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
• c) Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC). A CRC
checker functions exactly like a generator. After receiving the data
appended with the CRC it does the same modulo-2 division.
If the remainder is all 0’s the CRC is dropped and the data
accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and
Cyclic Redundancy Check
• one of most common and powerful checks
• The sender follows these steps
• a) The units are divided into k sections each of n bits.
• b) All sections are added together using 2’s complement to
get the sum.
• c) The sum is complemented and become the checksum.
• d) The checksum is sent with the data.
Error Correction Process
Flow Control
• Damaged Frame
– error in frame i so receiver rejects frame
i
– transmitter retransmits frames from i
• Lost Frame
– frame i lost and either
• transmitter sends i+1 and receiver gets
frame i+1 out of seq and rejects frame i
• or transmitter times out and send ACK with
P bit set which receiver responds to with
Go Back N - Handling
• Damaged Acknowledgement
– receiver gets frame i, sends ack (i+1) which is
lost
– acks are cumulative, so next ack (i+n) may
arrive before transmitter times out on frame i
– if transmitter times out, it sends ack with P bit
set
– can be repeated a number of times before a
reset procedure is initiated
• Damaged Rejection
– reject for damaged frame is lost
Selective Reject
• also called selective retransmission
• only rejected frames are retransmitted
• subsequent frames are accepted by the
receiver and buffered
• minimizes retransmission
• receiver must maintain large enough
buffer
• more complex logic in transmitter
• hence less widely used
• useful for satellite links with long
Go Back N vs
Selective Reject
High Level Data Link Control
(HDLC)
• an important data link control
protocol
• specified as ISO 33009, ISO 4335
• station types:
– Primary - controls operation of link
– Secondary - under control of primary
station
– Combined - issues commands and
responses
HDLC Transfer Modes
• Normal Response Mode (NRM)
– unbalanced config, primary initiates transfer
– used on multi-drop lines, eg host + terminals
• Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
– balanced config, either station initiates
transmission, has no polling overhead, widely
used
• Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
– unbalanced config, secondary may initiate
transmit without permission from primary,
rarely used
HDLC Frame Structure
• Information Field
– in information and some unnumbered
frames
– must contain integral number of octets
– variable length
• Frame Check Sequence Field (FCS)
– used for error detection
– either 16 bit CRC or 32 bit CRC
HDLC Operation
• consists of exchange of information,
supervisory and unnumbered frames
• have three phases
– initialization
• by either side, set mode & seq
– data transfer
• with flow and error control
• using both I & S-frames (RR, RNR, REJ, SREJ)
– disconnect
• when ready or fault noted
Timers and time registers
in FDDI.
• Time registers
– Synchronous allocation(SA)
– Target token rotation time(TTRT)
– Absolute maximum time(AMT)
• Timers
– Token rotation timer(TRT)
– Token holding timer(THT)
Ethernet.
• Access method :CSMA/CD
• Addressing
• Electrical specification
• Frame format
• Implementation
• 10 base 5 :Thick Ethernet
• 10 base 2 :Thin Ethernet
• 10 base T :Twisted-pair Ethernet
• 1 base 5 :Star LAN
UNIT III
• NETWORK LAYER 10
• Internetworks - Packet Switching and
Datagram approach – IP addressing
methods – Subnetting – Routing –
Distance Vector Routing – Link State
Routing – Routers
Packet Switching
• line efficiency
– single link shared by many packets over
time
– packets queued and transmitted as fast
as possible
• data rate conversion
– stations connects to local node at own
speed
– nodes buffer data if required to equalize
rates
Switching Techniques
• Datagram approach
• Virtual circuit approach
• Switched virtual circuit(SVC)
• Permanent virtual circuit(PVC)
• Circuit – switched connection versus
virtual – circuit connection
– Path versus route
– Dedicated versus shared
Virtual Circuits v Datagram
• virtual circuits
– network can provide sequencing and
error control
– packets are forwarded more quickly
– less reliable
• datagram
– no call setup phase
– more flexible
– more reliable
Routing in Packet Switched
Network
• key design issue for (packet) switched
networks
• select route across network between end
nodes
• characteristics required:
– correctness
– simplicity
– robustness
– stability
– fairness
– optimality
Routing Strategies - Fixed
Routing
• use a single permanent route for
each source to destination pair
• determined using a least cost
algorithm
• route is fixed
– at least until a change in network
topology
– hence cannot respond to traffic changes
• advantage is simplicity
Distance vector routing and
link state routing.
• Distance vector routing
– Sharing information
– Routing table
– Creating the table
– Updating the table
– Updating algorithm
• Link state routing
– Information sharing
– Packet cost
– Link state packet
– Getting information about neighbors
– Initialization
– Link state database
Bridges
• Types of bridges
– Simple bridge
– Multiport bridge
– Transparent bridge
Subnetting
• TRANSPORT LAYER
8
• Duties of transport layer –
Multiplexing – Demultiplexing –
Sockets – User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) – Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) – Congestion Control –
Quality of services (QOS) –
Integrated Services.
Duties of transport layer
• a control packet
– generated at congested node
– sent to source node
– eg. ICMP source quench
• from router or destination
• source cuts back until no more source
quench message
• sent for every discarded packet, or
anticipated
• is a rather crude mechanism
Implicit Congestion
Signaling
• transmission delay increases with
congestion
• hence a packet may be discarded
• source detects this implicit
congestion indication
• useful on connectionless (datagram)
networks
– eg. IP based
• (TCP includes congestion and flow control -
see chapter 17)
Explicit Congestion
Signaling
• network alerts end systems of
increasing congestion
• end systems take steps to reduce
offered load
• Backwards
– congestion avoidance notification in
opposite direction to packet required
• Forwards
– congestion avoidance notification in
same direction as packet required
Integrated Services
• APPLICATION LAYER
7
• Domain Name Space (DNS)
• SMTP
• FDP
• HTTP
• WWW
• Security
5. 1 DNS
The Internet Directory Service
• the Domain Name Service (DNS)
provides mapping between host
name & IP address
• defined in RFCs 1034 / 1035
• key elements
– domain name space
– DNS database
– name servers
– name resolvers
Domain Names
DNS Database
• hierarchical database
• containing resource records (RRs)
• features
– variable-depth hierarchy for names
– distributed database
– distribution controlled by database
• provides name-to-address directory
service for network applications
Resource Records (RRs)
DNS Operation
DNS Server Hierarchy
• Cache-Control
• Connection
• Data
• Forwarded
• Keep-Alive
• Mime-Version
• Pragma
• Upgrade
Request Methods
• request-line has
– method
– Request URL
– HTTP version
– Request-Line = Method Request-URL HTTP-
Version CRLF
• HTTP/1.1 methods:
– OPTIONS, GET, HEAD, POST, PUT,
PATCH, COPY, MOVE, DELETE, LINK,
UNLINK, TRACE, WRAPPED, Extension-
Status Codes
• Location
• Proxy-Authentication
• Public
• Retry-After
• Server
• WWW-Authenticate
Entity Header Fields
• Allow • Expires
• Content-Encoding • Last-Modified
• Content-Language • Link
• Content-Length
• Content-MD5
• Title
• Content-Range • Transfer-
• Content-Type Encoding
• Content-Version • URL-Header
• Derived-From • Extension-
Entity Body
• Security Requirements
• confidentiality - protect data
content/access
• integrity - protect data accuracy
• availability - ensure timely service
• authenticity - protect data origin
Passive Attacks
• eavesdropping on transmissions
• to obtain information
– release of possibly sensitive/confidential
message contents
– traffic analysis which monitors
frequency and length of messages to
get info on senders
• difficult to detect
• can be prevented using encryption
Active Attacks
• masquerade
– pretending to be a different entity
• replay
• modification of messages
• denial of service
• easy to detect
– detection may lead to deterrent
• hard to prevent
–
Requirements for Security