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NERVOUS functions BodyPs master controlling and communicating system system system Three functions Three functions sensory input sensory input Gathers information Gathers information from sensory receptors sensory input motor output motor output Activates effector organs to cause a response
NERVOUS functions BodyPs master controlling and communicating system system system Three functions Three functions sensory input sensory input Gathers information Gathers information from sensory receptors sensory input motor output motor output Activates effector organs to cause a response
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NERVOUS functions BodyPs master controlling and communicating system system system Three functions Three functions sensory input sensory input Gathers information Gathers information from sensory receptors sensory input motor output motor output Activates effector organs to cause a response
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Chona Chona H. H. Araga Araga, M.D. , M.D. NERVOUS FUNCTIONS NERVOUS FUNCTIONS Bodys master controlling and communicating Bodys master controlling and communicating system system Three functions Three functions Sensory input Sensory input Gathers information Gathers information from sensory receptors from sensory receptors Integration Integration Processes and interprets Processes and interprets sensory input sensory input Motor output Motor output Activates effector organs to cause a response Activates effector organs to cause a response Nervous System Nervous System Organization Organization ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION Two Principal Parts of the System Two Principal Parts of the System Central nervous system (CNS) Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord Brain and spinal cord Integrating and command center Integrating and command center Interprets sensory input Interprets sensory input Dictates motor responses Dictates motor responses Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Nerves extending from brain and spinal cord Nerves extending from brain and spinal cord Carry impulses to and from the CNS Carry impulses to and from the CNS PERIPHERAL DIVISIONS PERIPHERAL DIVISIONS Two Functional Subdivisions of the PNS Two Functional Subdivisions of the PNS Sensory division Sensory division afferent division afferent division Nerve fibers conveying impulses to the CNS Nerve fibers conveying impulses to the CNS Somatic afferent fibers Somatic afferent fibers convey impulses from the skin, convey impulses from the skin, muscles, and joints muscles, and joints Visceral afferent fibers Visceral afferent fibers convey impulses from visceral convey impulses from visceral organs organs Motor division Motor division , efferent division , efferent division Nerve fibers conveying impulses from the CNS Nerve fibers conveying impulses from the CNS ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION HISTOLOGY HISTOLOGY Nervous system consists mainly of nervous Nervous system consists mainly of nervous tissue tissue Highly cellular Highly cellular e.g., <20% extracellular space in CNS e.g., <20% extracellular space in CNS Two principal cell types Two principal cell types Neurons Neurons Excitable nerve cells that transmit electrical signals Excitable nerve cells that transmit electrical signals Supporting cells Supporting cells Smaller cells surrounding and wrapping neurons Smaller cells surrounding and wrapping neurons Neuroglia Neuroglia NEUROGLIA NEUROGLIA Nerve glue Nerve glue Six types of small cells associated with neurons Six types of small cells associated with neurons 4 in CNS 4 in CNS 2 in PNS 2 in PNS Most have central cell body and branching Most have central cell body and branching processes processes Several functions Several functions e.g., Supportive scaffolding for neurons e.g., Supportive scaffolding for neurons e.g., Electrical isolation of neurons e.g., Electrical isolation of neurons e.g., Neuron health and growth e.g., Neuron health and growth CNS NEUROGLIA CNS NEUROGLIA Astrocytes Astrocytes Microglia Microglia Ependymal cells Ependymal cells Oligodendrocytes Oligodendrocytes CNS NEUROGLIA CNS NEUROGLIA Astrocytes Astrocytes Most abundant and versatile Most abundant and versatile glial glial cells cells Numerous processes support branching neurons Numerous processes support branching neurons Anchor neurons to capillary blood supply Anchor neurons to capillary blood supply Guide migration of young neurons Guide migration of young neurons Facilitate nutrient delivery to neurons Facilitate nutrient delivery to neurons (blood (blood glial glial cell cell neuron) neuron) Control chemical environment Control chemical environment around neurons around neurons Uptake of K Uptake of K ++ , neurotransmitters , neurotransmitters Communicate with Communicate with astrocytes astrocytes & neurons & neurons Gap junctions Gap junctions ASTROCYTES ASTROCYTES star shaped cells with many branching star shaped cells with many branching cytoplasmic cytoplasmic process, process, develop from develop from ectodermal ectodermal spongioblasts spongioblasts.. nuclei are large, ovoid, spherical, nuclei not nuclei are large, ovoid, spherical, nuclei not obvious, obvious, cytoplasm has cytoplasm has golgi golgi complex, complex, few few ribosomes ribosomes, little granular reticulum, , little granular reticulum, lysosomes,and lysosomes,and glycogen. glycogen. 2 types of 2 types of astrocytes: astrocytes: protoplasmic astrocytes = found in gray matter protoplasmic astrocytes = found in gray matter of brain, spinal cordwith short thick processes.. of brain, spinal cordwith short thick processes.. Fibrous astrocyte = found in white matter, with Fibrous astrocyte = found in white matter, with long slender processes with few branches. long slender processes with few branches. CNS NEUROGLIA CNS NEUROGLIA Microglia Microglia Small ovoid cells Small ovoid cells Relatively long thorny Relatively long thorny processes processes Processes touch nearby neurons Processes touch nearby neurons Migrate toward injured neurons Migrate toward injured neurons Transform into macrophage Transform into macrophage Phagocytize Phagocytize microorganisms, debris microorganisms, debris (Cells of immune system cannot enter the CNS) (Cells of immune system cannot enter the CNS) CNS NEUROGLIA CNS NEUROGLIA Ependymal Cells Ependymal Cells Line central cavities of brain and spinal cord Line central cavities of brain and spinal cord Form permeable barrier between cerebrospinal fluid inside Form permeable barrier between cerebrospinal fluid inside these cavities and tissue fluid of CNS tissue these cavities and tissue fluid of CNS tissue Shapes range from squamous to columnar Shapes range from squamous to columnar Many are ciliated Many are ciliated Beating helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid cushioning brain Beating helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid cushioning brain and spinal cord and spinal cord CNS NEUROGLIA CNS NEUROGLIA Oligodendrocytes Oligodendrocytes Fewer processes than astrocytes Fewer processes than astrocytes Wrap processes tightly around thicker neuron Wrap processes tightly around thicker neuron fibers in CNS fibers in CNS Myelin sheath Myelin sheath Insulating covering Insulating covering OLIGODENDROCYTES OLIGODENDROCYTES smaller than smaller than astrocytes astrocytes.. Develop from Develop from spongioblasts spongioblasts ( primary ( primary ectodermal ectodermal cells) cells) Fewer than Fewer than astrocytes astrocytes with fewer and shorter with fewer and shorter processes. processes. Nuclei are small, ovoid, irregular, scanty Nuclei are small, ovoid, irregular, scanty cytoplasm cytoplasm On electron microscopy, more dense with On electron microscopy, more dense with numerous free and attached numerous free and attached ribosomes ribosomes, extensive , extensive golgi golgi complex complex Occur mainly in gray matter and among bundles of Occur mainly in gray matter and among bundles of axons in white matter ( axons in white matter (interfascicular interfascicular oligodendrocytes oligodendrocytes) ) PNS NEUROGLIA PNS NEUROGLIA Satellite cells Satellite cells Schwann cells Schwann cells PNS NEUROGLIA PNS NEUROGLIA Satellite cells Satellite cells Surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia Surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia (A ganglion is a collection of nerve cell bodies (A ganglion is a collection of nerve cell bodies outside of the CNS) outside of the CNS) Function poorly understood Function poorly understood PNS NEUROGLIA PNS NEUROGLIA Schwann cells Schwann cells Neurolemmocytes Neurolemmocytes Surround and form myelin sheaths around larger nerve Surround and form myelin sheaths around larger nerve fibers of PNS fibers of PNS Functionally similar to Functionally similar to oligodendrocytes oligodendrocytes Vital to regeneration of peripheral nerve fibers Vital to regeneration of peripheral nerve fibers NEURONS NEURONS Nerve cells Nerve cells Structural units of nervous system Structural units of nervous system Billions are present in nervous system Billions are present in nervous system Conduct messages throughout body Conduct messages throughout body Nerve impulses Nerve impulses Extreme longevity Extreme longevity Can function optimally for entire lifetime Can function optimally for entire lifetime Amitotic Amitotic Ability to divide is lost in mature cells Ability to divide is lost in mature cells Cannot be replaced if destroyed Cannot be replaced if destroyed Some (very few) exceptions Some (very few) exceptions e.g., stem cells present in olfactory epithelium can produce new neurons e.g., stem cells present in olfactory epithelium can produce new neurons Stem cell research shows great promise in repairing damaged neurons Stem cell research shows great promise in repairing damaged neurons High metabolic rate High metabolic rate Require large amounts of oxygen and glucose Require large amounts of oxygen and glucose Neurotrophins Neurotrophins Promote neuron growth. Promote neuron growth. Nerve growth factors include: Nerve growth factors include: Nerve growth factor (NGF), brain Nerve growth factor (NGF), brain- -derived neurotrophic factor derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial (BDNF), glial- -derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), neurotrophin neurotrophin- -3, and neurotrophin 3, and neurotrophin- -4/5. 4/5. Fetus: Fetus: Embryonic development of sensory neurons and sympathetic Embryonic development of sensory neurons and sympathetic ganglia (NGF and neurotrophin ganglia (NGF and neurotrophin- -3). 3). Adult: Adult: Maintenance of sympathetic ganglia (NGF). Maintenance of sympathetic ganglia (NGF). Mature sensory neurons need for regeneration. Mature sensory neurons need for regeneration. Required to maintain spinal neurons (GDNF). Required to maintain spinal neurons (GDNF). Sustain neurons that use dopamine (GDNF). Sustain neurons that use dopamine (GDNF). Myelin Myelin- -associated inhibitory proteins: associated inhibitory proteins: Inhibit axon regeneration. Inhibit axon regeneration. Neurons Neurons Axon of another neuron Axon of another neuron Cell Body Cell Body Dendrites Dendrites Axon Axon Myelin Sheath Myelin Sheath Dendrites of another neuron Dendrites of another neuron NEURONS NEURONS Generally large, complex cells Generally large, complex cells Structures vary, but all neurons have the same basic Structures vary, but all neurons have the same basic structure structure Cell body Cell body Slender processes Slender processes extending from cell extending from cell body body Plasma membrane Plasma membrane is site of signaling is site of signaling NEURON CELL BODY NEURON CELL BODY Most neuron cell bodies are located in the CNS Most neuron cell bodies are located in the CNS Protected by bones of skull or vertebral column Protected by bones of skull or vertebral column Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are termed Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are termed nuclei nuclei Clusters of cell Clusters of cell bodies in the bodies in the PNS are PNS are termed termed ganglia ganglia NEURON CELL BODY NEURON CELL BODY a.k.a., perikaryon or soma a.k.a., perikaryon or soma 5 5 140 140 m in diameter m in diameter Transparent spherical nucleus Transparent spherical nucleus Contains Contains conspicuous conspicuous nucleolus nucleolus Perikaryon ( soma) Perikaryon ( soma) > Formed by the nucleus and surrounding > Formed by the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm. cytoplasm. > Has a receptive function, receives stimuli > Has a receptive function, receives stimuli generated in other nerve cells. generated in other nerve cells. > acts as the trophic or nourishing center of the > acts as the trophic or nourishing center of the cell. cell. Perikaryon Perikaryon . Nucleus . Nucleus large up to 20 um dm. large up to 20 um dm. euchromatic and spherical, centrally located in soma euchromatic and spherical, centrally located in soma chromatin is fine and dispersed chromatin is fine and dispersed only one large nucleoli indicating active synthesis only one large nucleoli indicating active synthesis Barr bodies present Barr bodies present Nuclear envelop is distinct with numerous pores. Nuclear envelop is distinct with numerous pores. With large pale vesicular nucleus and prominent nucleulos With large pale vesicular nucleus and prominent nucleulos owls eye. owls eye. NEURON CELL BODY NEURON CELL BODY Major biosynthetic center of neuron Major biosynthetic center of neuron Other usual organelles present Other usual organelles present ER & ER & ribosomes ribosomes most active and best developed in body most active and best developed in body Sometimes contains Sometimes contains pigment inclusions pigment inclusions NEURON CELL BODY NEURON CELL BODY Focal point for the outgrowth of neuron processes Focal point for the outgrowth of neuron processes during embryonic development during embryonic development Some processes receive signals Some processes receive signals Plasma membrane Plasma membrane generally also acts generally also acts as part of the as part of the receptive surface receptive surface Perikaryon. Perikaryon. . . Cytoplasmic Cytoplasmic organelles organelles plasmalemma plasmalemma is 7 is 7 8 nm thick 8 nm thick mitochondria usually small ovoid, or spherical with mitochondria usually small ovoid, or spherical with cristae cristae of of both tubular and lamellar type. both tubular and lamellar type. Large Large golgi golgi apparatus & apparatus & para para- -nuclear in position. nuclear in position. Centrioles Centrioles are prominent with cilium protruding from cell are prominent with cilium protruding from cell surface surface.( nerve cells are incapable of cell division) .( nerve cells are incapable of cell division) Primary Primary lysosomes lysosomes are common, located near a are common, located near a golgi golgi apparatus, associated with hydrolysis of end products of apparatus, associated with hydrolysis of end products of cellular metabolism cellular metabolism Secondary Secondary lysosomes lysosomes increase in number with age, some increase in number with age, some become become lipofuscin lipofuscin granules. granules. PROMINENT FEATURES OF PROMINENT FEATURES OF NEURONS NEURONS NISSL bodies NISSL bodies are basophilic component of the are basophilic component of the cytoplasm, cytoplasm, stained by basic aniline dyes stained by basic aniline dyes bodies are stack of granular endoplasmic reticulum with bodies are stack of granular endoplasmic reticulum with associated associated polysomes polysomes and and ribosomes ribosomes both free and both free and attached. attached. Present in dendrites but absent in axon and the axon Present in dendrites but absent in axon and the axon hillock. hillock. Axon hillock = clear conical areas at the origin Axon hillock = clear conical areas at the origin of axon from the soma. of axon from the soma. Nissl Nissl bodies react to injury by breaking up bodies react to injury by breaking up and diffusing throughout the cytoplasm called and diffusing throughout the cytoplasm called chromatolysis chromatolysis Prominent features of Prominent features of neurons neurons Neurofibrils Neurofibrils visible by light microscopy visible by light microscopy found through out the found through out the parikaryon parikaryon extend into dendrites and axons. extend into dendrites and axons. The bundles contain microtubules ( The bundles contain microtubules ( neurotubules neurotubules 25 nm dm ) and microfilaments ( 25 nm dm ) and microfilaments ( neurofilaments neurofilaments, , 10 nm dm). 10 nm dm). Prominent features Prominent features of neuron of neuron Cytoplasmic Cytoplasmic inclusions. inclusions. fat droplets commonly found in fat droplets commonly found in perikaryon perikaryon glycogen not present in adult neurons. glycogen not present in adult neurons. Pigments granules various type present Pigments granules various type present Lipofuscin Lipofuscin granules in large neurons. granules in large neurons. Granules are yellow brown Granules are yellow brown Iron granules present in nerve cells of various regions like Iron granules present in nerve cells of various regions like in in globus globus pallidus pallidus, tend to increase in number with age. , tend to increase in number with age. Melanin is present in: Melanin is present in: substantia substantia nigra nigra of midbrain, of midbrain, spinal and sympathetic ganglia spinal and sympathetic ganglia Locus Locus ceruleus ceruleus in 4th ventricle floor. in 4th ventricle floor. NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Extend from the neurons cell body Extend from the neurons cell body CNS contains both neuron cell bodies and their CNS contains both neuron cell bodies and their processes processes Bundles of CNS processes are termed tracts Bundles of CNS processes are termed tracts PNS consists mainly of neuronal processes PNS consists mainly of neuronal processes Bundles of PNS processes are termed nerves Bundles of PNS processes are termed nerves Two types of neuron processes Two types of neuron processes Dendrites Dendrites Axons Axons Nerve cell Nerve cell processes. processes. Dendrites = nerve cells of sensory ganglia ( Dendrites = nerve cells of sensory ganglia ( uni uni and bipolar) have a single dendrite that and bipolar) have a single dendrite that resembles an axon. resembles an axon. > main stem dendrites contain > main stem dendrites contain nissl nissl bodies. bodies. > contains microtubules and filaments > contains microtubules and filaments > involved in transport of organelles > involved in transport of organelles > contains > contains dendritic dendritic spines specialized for spines specialized for synaptic contacts. synaptic contacts. NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Dendrite Typical Dendrite Short, tapering, diffusely branching extensions Short, tapering, diffusely branching extensions Generally hundreds clustering close to cell body Generally hundreds clustering close to cell body Most cell body organelles also present in dendrites Most cell body organelles also present in dendrites Main receptive / input regions Main receptive / input regions Large surface area for Large surface area for receiving signals from receiving signals from other neurons other neurons Convey incoming messages Convey incoming messages toward cell body toward cell body Short Short- -distance signals are distance signals are graded potentials graded potentials Not action potentials Not action potentials Nerve cell Nerve cell processes. processes. Axon = the axis cylinder, single, arising from Axon = the axis cylinder, single, arising from the nerve cell body called Axon hillock the nerve cell body called Axon hillock with smooth contour and are of uniform diameter with smooth contour and are of uniform diameter more slender and straighter more slender and straighter usually terminates in twig like branching usually terminates in twig like branching- - telodendrites telodendrites Telodendrites Telodendrites contact the contact the perikaryon perikaryon, dendrites , dendrites oraxon oraxon of one or more neurons at synapses. of one or more neurons at synapses. Boutons Boutons terminaux terminaux = small swellings at the axonal = small swellings at the axonal twigs at the twigs at the terminationof terminationof a a myelinated myelinated axon. axon. Boutons Boutons or passant = swellings at the synapses of or passant = swellings at the synapses of terminal axons. terminal axons. NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Single axon per neuron Single axon per neuron Axon hillock of cell body narrows to form a slender Axon hillock of cell body narrows to form a slender process of uniform diameter process of uniform diameter Sometimes very short Sometimes very short Sometimes very long Sometimes very long e.g., axons controlling e.g., axons controlling big toe are 3 big toe are 3 4 feet 4 feet long long NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Single axon may branch along length Single axon may branch along length Axon collaterals extend from neurons at ~ 90 Axon collaterals extend from neurons at ~ 90 oo angles angles Usually branches Usually branches profusely at end profusely at end 10,000 or more 10,000 or more terminal branches terminal branches is common is common Distal endings Distal endings termed axonal termed axonal terminals terminals NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Conducting component of neuron Conducting component of neuron Generates nerve impulses Generates nerve impulses Generated at axon hillock / axon junction in motor neurons Generated at axon hillock / axon junction in motor neurons Trigger zone Trigger zone Transmits nerve Transmits nerve impulses away from impulses away from cell body cell body To axonal terminals To axonal terminals NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Axonal terminals are Axonal terminals are secretory component secretory component of neuron of neuron Sequence of events Sequence of events Signal reaches terminals Signal reaches terminals Membranes of vesicles fuse with Membranes of vesicles fuse with plasma membrane plasma membrane Axolemma Axolemma Neurotransmitters released Neurotransmitters released Neurotransmitters interact Neurotransmitters interact with either other neurons with either other neurons or effector cells or effector cells Excite or inhibit Excite or inhibit NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Contains most of the same organelles found in dendrites Contains most of the same organelles found in dendrites and cell body and cell body Lacks ER and Golgi apparatus Lacks ER and Golgi apparatus NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Rely on cell body for some molecules Rely on cell body for some molecules Rely on efficient transport mechanisms for delivery Rely on efficient transport mechanisms for delivery Anterograde Anterograde movement toward axonal terminals movement toward axonal terminals e.g., Mitochondria, e.g., Mitochondria, membrane components, membrane components, neurotransmitters or neurotransmitters or enzymes required for enzymes required for neurotransmitter neurotransmitter synthesis, etc. synthesis, etc. Retrograde Retrograde movement movement toward cell body toward cell body e.g., Organelles being e.g., Organelles being returned for recycling returned for recycling NEURON PROCESSES NEURON PROCESSES Typical Axon Typical Axon Some viruses and bacterial toxins use retrograde Some viruses and bacterial toxins use retrograde transport to reach the cell body transport to reach the cell body e.g., poliovirus, rabies virus, herpes simplex viruses, tetanus e.g., poliovirus, rabies virus, herpes simplex viruses, tetanus toxin, etc. toxin, etc. Such viruses can be Such viruses can be used as vehicles for the used as vehicles for the therapeutic delivery of therapeutic delivery of engineered DNA engineered DNA Gene therapy Gene therapy MYELIN SHEATH MYELIN SHEATH Whitish, fatty covering of many nerve fibers Whitish, fatty covering of many nerve fibers Particularly those long are large in diameter Particularly those long are large in diameter Protects and electrically insulates fibers Protects and electrically insulates fibers Increases speed of nerve impulse transmission Increases speed of nerve impulse transmission Some axons and all dendrites are unmyelinated Some axons and all dendrites are unmyelinated MYELIN SHEATH MYELIN SHEATH In PNS, myelin sheaths formed by Schwann cells In PNS, myelin sheaths formed by Schwann cells Continually wrap around nerve Continually wrap around nerve Cytoplasm gradually squeezed from intracellular space Cytoplasm gradually squeezed from intracellular space Result is many concentric layers of plasma membrane Result is many concentric layers of plasma membrane surrounding the axon surrounding the axon These plasma membranes contain little protein These plasma membranes contain little protein Some proteins present interlock adjacent membranes Some proteins present interlock adjacent membranes Thickness depends on number of wrappings Thickness depends on number of wrappings Nucleus and most of Nucleus and most of cytoplasm exist as a bulge cytoplasm exist as a bulge external to the myelin sheath external to the myelin sheath Neurilemma Neurilemma MYELIN SHEATH MYELIN SHEATH Adjacent Schwann cells on axon do not touch Adjacent Schwann cells on axon do not touch each other each other Gaps in sheath occur at regular intervals Gaps in sheath occur at regular intervals Nodes of Ranvier Nodes of Ranvier a.k.a., Neurofibril a.k.a., Neurofibril nodes nodes Axon collaterals Axon collaterals can emerge at can emerge at these nodes these nodes MYELIN SHEATH MYELIN SHEATH CNS contains both myelinated and unmyelinated CNS contains both myelinated and unmyelinated axons axons Those long are large in diameter are typically Those long are large in diameter are typically myelinated myelinated Oligodendrocytes, not Schwann cells, form CNS Oligodendrocytes, not Schwann cells, form CNS myelin sheaths myelin sheaths Oligodendrocytes possess numerous processes that Oligodendrocytes possess numerous processes that can coil around numerous (up to 60) axons at once can coil around numerous (up to 60) axons at once CNS myelin sheaths lack a neurilemma CNS myelin sheaths lack a neurilemma Myelination of Axons by Oligodendrocytes MYELIN SHEATH MYELIN SHEATH White matter White matter Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing dense collections of myelinated fibers dense collections of myelinated fibers Gray matter Gray matter Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing mostly nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers mostly nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers NEURON CLASSIFICATION NEURON CLASSIFICATION Structural classification based upon number of Structural classification based upon number of processes processes Multipolar neurons Multipolar neurons Bipolar neurons Bipolar neurons Unipolar neurons Unipolar neurons Functional classification based upon direction Functional classification based upon direction nerve impulse travels nerve impulse travels Sensory (afferent) neurons Sensory (afferent) neurons Motor (efferent) neurons Motor (efferent) neurons Interneurons (association neurons) Interneurons (association neurons) NEURON CLASSIFICATION NEURON CLASSIFICATION Structural Classification Structural Classification Multipolar neurons Multipolar neurons Three or more processes Three or more processes Most common neuron Most common neuron type in humans type in humans (> 99% of neurons) (> 99% of neurons) Bipolar neurons Bipolar neurons Two processes Two processes axon and axon and dendrite dendrite Found only in some Found only in some special sense organs special sense organs e.g., retina of eye e.g., retina of eye Act as receptor cells Act as receptor cells Unipolar neurons Unipolar neurons Single short process Single short process Pseudounipolar neurons Pseudounipolar neurons Originate as bipolar neurons Originate as bipolar neurons Two processes converge and Two processes converge and fuse fuse Process divides into proximal Process divides into proximal and distal branches and distal branches Distal process often associated Distal process often associated with a sensory receptor with a sensory receptor Peripheral process Peripheral process Central process enters CNS Central process enters CNS Most are sensory neurons in Most are sensory neurons in PNS PNS Classification of Classification of neurons by shape neurons by shape NEURON CLASSIFICATION NEURON CLASSIFICATION Functional Classification Functional Classification Sensory (afferent) neurons Sensory (afferent) neurons Transmit impulses Transmit impulses toward toward CNS CNS From sensory receptors or internal From sensory receptors or internal organs organs Most are unipolar Most are unipolar Cell bodies are located outside Cell bodies are located outside CNS CNS Motor (efferent) neurons Motor (efferent) neurons Carry impulses Carry impulses away from away from CNS CNS Toward effector organs Toward effector organs Multipolar Multipolar Cell bodies generally located in Cell bodies generally located in the CNS the CNS Interneurons Interneurons a.k.a., association a.k.a., association neurons neurons Lie between motor and Lie between motor and sensory neurons in sensory neurons in neural pathways neural pathways Shuttle signals through Shuttle signals through CNS pathways where CNS pathways where integration occurs integration occurs > 99% of neurons in > 99% of neurons in body body Most are multipolar Most are multipolar Most are confined Most are confined within the CNS within the CNS NEUROPHYSIOLOGY NEUROPHYSIOLOGY Neurons are highly irritable Neurons are highly irritable Responsive to stimuli Responsive to stimuli Response to stimulus is action potential Response to stimulus is action potential Electrical impulse carried along length of axon Electrical impulse carried along length of axon Always the same regardless of stimulus Always the same regardless of stimulus The underlying functional feature of the nervous The underlying functional feature of the nervous system system ION CHANNELS ION CHANNELS Plasma membranes contain various ion channels Plasma membranes contain various ion channels Passive channels (leakage channels) Passive channels (leakage channels) Always open Always open Active channels (gated channels) Active channels (gated channels) Ligand Ligand- -gated channels gated channels Open when specific chemical binds Open when specific chemical binds Voltage Voltage- -gated channels gated channels Open and close in response to membrane potential Open and close in response to membrane potential Mechanically Mechanically- -gated channels gated channels Open in response to physical deformation of receptor Open in response to physical deformation of receptor e.g., touch and pressure receptors e.g., touch and pressure receptors MEMBRANE POTENTIALS MEMBRANE POTENTIALS A voltage exists across the plasma membrane A voltage exists across the plasma membrane Due to separation of oppositely charged ions Due to separation of oppositely charged ions Potential difference in a resting membrane is Potential difference in a resting membrane is termed its termed its resting membrane potential resting membrane potential ~ ~ - -70 mV in a resting 70 mV in a resting neuron neuron Membrane is Membrane is polarized polarized MEMBRANE POTENTIALS MEMBRANE POTENTIALS Neurons use changes in membrane potentials as Neurons use changes in membrane potentials as signals signals Used to receive, integrate, and send signals Used to receive, integrate, and send signals Changes in membrane potentials produced by Changes in membrane potentials produced by Anything changing membrane permeability to ions Anything changing membrane permeability to ions Anything altering ion concentrations Anything altering ion concentrations Two types of signals Two types of signals Graded potentials Graded potentials Short Short- -distance signals distance signals Action potentials Action potentials Long Long- -distance signals distance signals ACTION POTENTIALS ACTION POTENTIALS Conduction Velocities Conduction Velocities Conduction velocities of neurons vary widely Conduction velocities of neurons vary widely Rate of impulse propagation dependent upon Rate of impulse propagation dependent upon Axon diameter Axon diameter Larger axons conduct impulses faster Larger axons conduct impulses faster Degree of myelination Degree of myelination Myelin sheath dramatically increases rate of propagation Myelin sheath dramatically increases rate of propagation Myelin acts as an insulator to prevent almost all leakage from Myelin acts as an insulator to prevent almost all leakage from axon axon ACTION POTENTIALS ACTION POTENTIALS Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Autoimmune disease mainly affecting young Autoimmune disease mainly affecting young adults adults Myelin sheaths in CNS are gradually destroyed Myelin sheaths in CNS are gradually destroyed Interferes with impulse conduction Interferes with impulse conduction Visual disturbances, muscle control problems, Visual disturbances, muscle control problems, speech disturbances, etc. speech disturbances, etc. Some modern treatments showing some promise Some modern treatments showing some promise in delaying problems in delaying problems NERVE FIBERS NERVE FIBERS Classified based on Classified based on Diameter Diameter Degree of myelination Degree of myelination Conduction speed Conduction speed NERVE FIBER CLASSIFICATION NERVE FIBER CLASSIFICATION Group A fibers Group A fibers Largest diameter Largest diameter Thick myelin sheaths Thick myelin sheaths Conduct impulses at high speeds (> 300 mph) Conduct impulses at high speeds (> 300 mph) Mostly somatic sensory ad motor fibers serving skin, skeletal Mostly somatic sensory ad motor fibers serving skin, skeletal muscles, and joints muscles, and joints Group B fibers Group B fibers Intermediate diameter Intermediate diameter Lightly myelinated Lightly myelinated Transmit impulses at moderate speeds (40 mph) Transmit impulses at moderate speeds (40 mph) Group C fibers Group C fibers Smallest diameter Smallest diameter Unmyelinated Unmyelinated Transmit impulses comparatively slowly (2 mph or less) Transmit impulses comparatively slowly (2 mph or less) Nerve Fiber Nerve Fiber Classification Classification General classification scheme (Erlanger General classification scheme (Erlanger- -Gasser): Gasser): A fibers: Myelinated A fibers: Myelinated Subtypes: Subtypes: , , , o, , , , o, some overlap in ranges some overlap in ranges Fastest conducting and largest diameter Fastest conducting and largest diameter l20 l20 m/sec, m/sec, 20 ) 20 ) A often dropped: alpha motor neuron A often dropped: alpha motor neuron B fibers: Slower myelinated (seldom used) B fibers: Slower myelinated (seldom used) C fibers: Unmyelinated C fibers: Unmyelinated Slower conducting than As and smallest diameter (0.5 m/sec, 0.5 Slower conducting than As and smallest diameter (0.5 m/sec, 0.5 ) ) Nerve Fiber Nerve Fiber Classification Classification Sensory nerve classification (Lloyd Sensory nerve classification (Lloyd- -Hunt): Hunt): I, II, III fibers: Myelinated I, II, III fibers: Myelinated Subtypes: Ia, Ib Subtypes: Ia, Ib Fastest conducting and largest diameter Fastest conducting and largest diameter Ia Ia IV fibers: Unmyelinated IV fibers: Unmyelinated Slower conducting than IIIs and smallest diameter Slower conducting than IIIs and smallest diameter SYNAPSE SYNAPSE Junction mediating information transfer from one Junction mediating information transfer from one neuron to another neuron or an effector cell neuron to another neuron or an effector cell Axodendritic synapses Axodendritic synapses Axonal endings Axonal endings dendrites of second neuron dendrites of second neuron Axosomatic synapses Axosomatic synapses Axonal endings Axonal endings cell body of neuron cell body of neuron Presynaptic neuron Presynaptic neuron Conducts impulses toward the synapse Conducts impulses toward the synapse Postsynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron Transmits impulse away from the synapse Transmits impulse away from the synapse SYNAPSE TYPES SYNAPSE TYPES Electrical Synapses Electrical Synapses Less common than chemical synapses Less common than chemical synapses Correspond to gap junctions found elsewhere Correspond to gap junctions found elsewhere Cytoplasm of adjacent neurons connected through Cytoplasm of adjacent neurons connected through protein channels protein channels Ions flow directly between neurons Ions flow directly between neurons Transmission across synapse is very rapid Transmission across synapse is very rapid SYNAPSE TYPES SYNAPSE TYPES Chemical Synapses Chemical Synapses Specialized for release & reception of Specialized for release & reception of neurotransmitters neurotransmitters Two parts Two parts Axonal terminal of presynaptic neuron Axonal terminal of presynaptic neuron Contains numerous synaptic vesicles filled with Contains numerous synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules neurotransmitter molecules Neurotransmitter receptor region Neurotransmitter receptor region Present on dendrite or cell body of postsynaptic neuron Present on dendrite or cell body of postsynaptic neuron Separated by synaptic cleft Separated by synaptic cleft Remember this stuff in muscles? Remember this stuff in muscles? SYNAPSE SYNAPSE Nerve impulse reaches axonal terminal Nerve impulse reaches axonal terminal Voltage Voltage- -gated Ca gated Ca 2+ 2+ channels open in axon channels open in axon Ca Ca 2+ 2+ enters presynaptic neuron enters presynaptic neuron Neurotransmitter is released via exocytosis Neurotransmitter is released via exocytosis Vesicles fuse with axonal membrane Vesicles fuse with axonal membrane Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors Ion channels open in Ion channels open in postsynaptic membrane postsynaptic membrane Result is excitation or Result is excitation or inhibition inhibition SYNAPSE SYNAPSE Binding of neurotransmitter to its receptor is Binding of neurotransmitter to its receptor is reversible reversible Permeability affected as long as neurotransmitter Permeability affected as long as neurotransmitter is bound to its receptor is bound to its receptor Neurotransmitters do not persist in the synaptic Neurotransmitters do not persist in the synaptic cleft cleft Degraded by enzymes associated with postsynaptic Degraded by enzymes associated with postsynaptic membrane membrane Reuptake by astrocytes or presynaptic terminal Reuptake by astrocytes or presynaptic terminal Diffusion of neurotransmitters away from synapse Diffusion of neurotransmitters away from synapse NEUROTRANSMITTERS NEUROTRANSMITTERS More than fifty neurotransmitters identified More than fifty neurotransmitters identified Most neurons make two or more Most neurons make two or more Can be released singly or together Can be released singly or together Classification by Structure Classification by Structure Acetylcholine (ACh) Acetylcholine (ACh) Biogenic amines Biogenic amines Amino acids Amino acids Peptides Peptides ATP ATP Dissolved gases Dissolved gases Classification by Function Classification by Function Excitatory/Inhibitory Excitatory/Inhibitory Direct/Indirect Direct/Indirect NEURAL INTEGRATION NEURAL INTEGRATION Neurons function in groups, not singly Neurons function in groups, not singly These various components must interact These various components must interact Multiple levels of neural integration Multiple levels of neural integration NEURONAL POOLS NEURONAL POOLS Neurons in CNS are organized into pools Neurons in CNS are organized into pools Functional groups Functional groups Integrate incoming information Integrate incoming information Forward processed information Forward processed information NEURONAL POOLS NEURONAL POOLS Simple Neuronal Pool Simple Neuronal Pool Incoming fiber branches profusely upon entering pool Incoming fiber branches profusely upon entering pool EPSPs induced in multiple postsynaptic neurons EPSPs induced in multiple postsynaptic neurons EPSPs exceed threshold in some neurons EPSPs exceed threshold in some neurons Mainly those with multiple synaptic contacts Mainly those with multiple synaptic contacts EPSPs do not exceed EPSPs do not exceed threshold in some threshold in some neurons neurons Mainly those with Mainly those with fewer synaptic contacts fewer synaptic contacts Some close to threshold Some close to threshold Facilitated zone Facilitated zone TYPES OF CIRCUITS TYPES OF CIRCUITS Patterns of synaptic connections in neuronal Patterns of synaptic connections in neuronal pools are called circuits pools are called circuits Determine neuronal pools functional capabilities Determine neuronal pools functional capabilities Four basic circuit patterns Four basic circuit patterns Diverging circuits Diverging circuits Converging circuits Converging circuits Reverberating (oscillating) circuits Reverberating (oscillating) circuits Parallel after Parallel after- -discharge circuits discharge circuits TYPES OF CIRCUITS TYPES OF CIRCUITS Diverging (Amplifying) Circuit Diverging (Amplifying) Circuit One incoming fiber triggers responses in ever One incoming fiber triggers responses in ever- - increasing numbers of neurons increasing numbers of neurons Common in both sensory and motor systems Common in both sensory and motor systems TYPES OF CIRCUITS TYPES OF CIRCUITS Converging Circuits Converging Circuits Pool receives inputs from several neurons Pool receives inputs from several neurons Circuit has funneling effect Circuit has funneling effect Common in sensory Common in sensory and motor systems and motor systems TYPES OF CIRCUITS TYPES OF CIRCUITS Reverberating (Oscillating) Circuits Reverberating (Oscillating) Circuits Incoming signal travels through chain of neurons Incoming signal travels through chain of neurons Each neuron makes synapses with neurons Each neuron makes synapses with neurons upstream in the pathway upstream in the pathway Involved in rhythmic activities (e.g., breathing) Involved in rhythmic activities (e.g., breathing) TYPES OF CIRCUITS TYPES OF CIRCUITS Parallel After Parallel After- -Discharge Circuits Discharge Circuits Incoming fiber stimulated parallel neuron arrays Incoming fiber stimulated parallel neuron arrays Parallel arrays ultimately stimulate a common Parallel arrays ultimately stimulate a common output cell output cell Create prolonged burst of impulses Create prolonged burst of impulses Involved in complex Involved in complex mental processing mental processing PROCESSING PATTERNS PROCESSING PATTERNS Serial input processing Serial input processing Input travels along one pathway to a specific Input travels along one pathway to a specific destination destination All All- -or or- -nothing function of system nothing function of system e.g., reflexes e.g., reflexes Parallel input processing Parallel input processing Inputs are segregated into multiple pathways Inputs are segregated into multiple pathways Integrated in different CNS regions Integrated in different CNS regions Different circuits do different things with input Different circuits do different things with input Not repetitious Not repetitious MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX The cerebral cortex contain 3 main types of neuron The cerebral cortex contain 3 main types of neuron 1. Pyramidal cells 1. Pyramidal cells triangular shape triangular shape - - apical dendrites reaching from the upper end towards apical dendrites reaching from the upper end towards the cortical surface the cortical surface - - basilar dendrites extending horizontally from the cell basilar dendrites extending horizontally from the cell body body 2. 2. Stellate Stellate neurons neurons - - star shape star shape - - dendrites extending in all directions dendrites extending in all directions 3. 3. Fusiform Fusiform neurons neurons - -found in the deeper layers found in the deeper layers - - large dendrites ascend towards the cortical surface large dendrites ascend towards the cortical surface The axons of the pyramidal and fusiform neurons form The axons of the pyramidal and fusiform neurons form the projection and association fibers ; with the large the projection and association fibers ; with the large layer V pyramidal neurons projecting their axons to the layer V pyramidal neurons projecting their axons to the spinal cord and brainstem spinal cord and brainstem Smaller layers II and III pyramidal cells send Smaller layers II and III pyramidal cells send association axons to other cortical areas association axons to other cortical areas Stellate neurons are interneurons whose axons remain Stellate neurons are interneurons whose axons remain within the cortex within the cortex LAYERS OF THE CEREBRAL LAYERS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX CORTEX 1. 1. Molecular Molecular layer / layer I layer / layer I - -outermost layer outermost layer - -contains non contains non- -specific afferent specific afferent fibers fibers that come from within the cortex or from the that come from within the cortex or from the thalamus thalamus 2. External granular / layer II 2. External granular / layer II - -dense layer of small cells dense layer of small cells 3. External pyramidal / layer III 3. External pyramidal / layer III - -containing pyramidal cells frequently in row formation containing pyramidal cells frequently in row formation 4. Internal granular / layer IV 4. Internal granular / layer IV - -thin layer with cells similar to those of external granular layer thin layer with cells similar to those of external granular layer - -receives afferent receives afferent fibers fibers from the thalamus from the thalamus 5. Internal pyramidal / layer V 5. Internal pyramidal / layer V - -containing fewer pyramidal cells but larger in sizes than those of external containing fewer pyramidal cells but larger in sizes than those of external pyramidal layer pyramidal layer - -cells project to distal structure ( cells project to distal structure (eg eg. Spinal cord, brainstem) . Spinal cord, brainstem) 6. 6. Fusiform Fusiform or multiform / layer VI or multiform / layer VI - - irregular irregular fusiform fusiform cells whose axons enter the adjacent white matter cells whose axons enter the adjacent white matter Basal ganglia Basal ganglia - - masses of gray matter deep within the masses of gray matter deep within the cerebral hemispheres cerebral hemispheres - - plays an essential functional role in motor plays an essential functional role in motor control. control. Parts of Basal ganglia: Parts of Basal ganglia: 1. 1. Caudate nucleus Caudate nucleus 2. 2. Putamen Putamen 3. 3. Globus Globus pallidus pallidus Sheets of Sheets of myelinated myelinated fibers fibers of internal capsule of internal capsule run between the nuclei imparting a striped run between the nuclei imparting a striped appearance thus the name corpus striatum appearance thus the name corpus striatum Fastigeal Fastigeal nucleus nucleus - - Most medial; contains small and large Most medial; contains small and large multipolar multipolar neurons neurons Globose Globose nucleus nucleus - - lateral to lateral to fastigeal fastigeal and medial to and medial to emboliform emboliform contains contains small and large small and large multipolar multipolar neurons neurons Emboliform Emboliform nucleus nucleus wedge shaped mass wedge shaped mass - - Located close to the Located close to the hilus hilus of dentate nucleus of dentate nucleus - -composed mostly of large composed mostly of large multipolar multipolar neurns neurns Dentate nucleus Dentate nucleus- - largest and most lateral largest and most lateral crumpled bag appearance; large crumpled bag appearance; large multipolar multipolar neurons neurons Cerebellar cortex Molecular layer : contains 1-Cells : molecular cells (stellate cells) & basket cells. 2-Nerve Fibres : a- dendrites of Purkinje cells (arborisations). b-axons of granule cells. ( bifurcate to produce 2-parallel fibres , oriented along long axis of folium). c-ending of climbing fibers. Purkinje cell layer : it is formed of one layer (unicellular) of large flask-shaped purkinje cells. Their arborisations are at right angles to long axis to folium. Granular layer : it is formed of small granule cells & ending of mossy fibres. High mag of the Purkinje Cells of the Cerebellum Spinal cord Spinal cord surrounded by Pia Matter which extends into the surrounded by Pia Matter which extends into the anterior median fissure. anterior median fissure. Centrally is an H Centrally is an H- -shaped area of gray matter shaped area of gray matter compose of nerve cells. compose of nerve cells. The limbs of the H are called anterior and The limbs of the H are called anterior and posterior horn. The central canal lies at the posterior horn. The central canal lies at the horizontal bar of the H. horizontal bar of the H. The white matter is divided by into longitudinal The white matter is divided by into longitudinal columns by the FUNICULI. columns by the FUNICULI. Zone of Lissauer = small area containing fine Zone of Lissauer = small area containing fine nerve cells, between the tips of the posterior horn nerve cells, between the tips of the posterior horn and the surface of the cord. and the surface of the cord. Peripheral nerves Peripheral nerves composed of bundles of nerve fibers are held together by composed of bundles of nerve fibers are held together by connective tissue. connective tissue. Appear as white due to Appear as white due to myelinated myelinated fibers. fibers. Epineurium Epineurium = capsule of connective tissue sheath around = capsule of connective tissue sheath around a nerve, composed of fibroblasts and a nerve, composed of fibroblasts and collagenous collagenous fibers, fibers, longitudinal and elastic fibers, major blood vessels. longitudinal and elastic fibers, major blood vessels. Fascicles = bundles within an Fascicles = bundles within an epineurium epineurium.. Perineurium Perineurium= connective tissue sheath around each = connective tissue sheath around each fascicle, formed by concentric layers of flattened fascicle, formed by concentric layers of flattened fibroblast fibroblast- -like cells one cell thick. It is like cells one cell thick. It is continous continous with the with the pia pia arachnoid arachnoid membrane of the CNS. Provides a barrier membrane of the CNS. Provides a barrier to the passage of materials into or out of the nerve to the passage of materials into or out of the nerve fascicle. fascicle. Endoneurium Endoneurium= strands of delicate connective tissue = strands of delicate connective tissue extending around and between individual nerve fibers. extending around and between individual nerve fibers. Nerve 10x Nerve 10x NERVE 40X NERVE 40X Ganglia Ganglia a collection of nerve cell bodies located outside the a collection of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system. central nervous system. Types of ganglia: Types of ganglia: Craniospinal Craniospinal ganglia ( sensory) ganglia ( sensory) Autonomic nerve system (visceral, motor ganglia) Autonomic nerve system (visceral, motor ganglia) vary in size and shape with few nerve cell bodies to vary in size and shape with few nerve cell bodies to large one up to 50,000 or more cells. large one up to 50,000 or more cells. Satellite cells = capsule of single layer of Satellite cells = capsule of single layer of cuboidal cuboidal cells cells Fish eye nucleus Fish eye nucleus Low magnification of a Ganglion Spinal Ganglion w/ cell bodies and nerve fibers Cell Body w/ Nissl and surrounding Satellite Cells Sympathetic ganglion w/ lipofuschin pigment Membranes and vessels of Membranes and vessels of CNS CNS Dura matter or Dura matter or pachymenninx pachymenninx = fibrous tough and = fibrous tough and inelastic, lines the cranium and attached firmly to the inelastic, lines the cranium and attached firmly to the bone. Separated from the bone by an epidural or bone. Separated from the bone by an epidural or extradural extradural space. space. Composed of the: Composed of the: Falx Falx cerebrii cerebrii= separate the 2 cerebral hemisphere = separate the 2 cerebral hemisphere Tentorium Tentorium cerebelli cerebelli= horizontal, between the occipital lobes of = horizontal, between the occipital lobes of cerebrum above and below the cerebellum. cerebrum above and below the cerebellum. Falx Falx cerebelli cerebelli= between = between cerebellar cerebellar hemispheres hemispheres Membranes and Membranes and vessels.. vessels.. Arachnoid membrane = the middle layer, Arachnoid membrane = the middle layer, composed of fine cobweb like strands of composed of fine cobweb like strands of interlacing reticular fibers. The thin, delicate, interlacing reticular fibers. The thin, delicate, nonvascular membrane that lines the dura. nonvascular membrane that lines the dura. Has a space subarachnoid spacebetween Has a space subarachnoid spacebetween trabeculae trabeculae Membranes and Membranes and vessels. vessels. Pia matter = the innermost layer, with blood vessels Pia matter = the innermost layer, with blood vessels supplying the CNS, single layered leptomeninnx or supplying the CNS, single layered leptomeninnx or leptomeninges.The deeper layer Intima pia close leptomeninges.The deeper layer Intima pia close meshwork of fine reticular and elastic fibers adherent meshwork of fine reticular and elastic fibers adherent to the underlying nervous tissue. Contains branches to the underlying nervous tissue. Contains branches of the internal carotid and vertebral artery into the of the internal carotid and vertebral artery into the substance of CNS. substance of CNS. Blood brain barrier Blood brain barrier the close investment of blood capillaries in the CNS by the close investment of blood capillaries in the CNS by neuroglial cells and their process. neuroglial cells and their process. It is now know however, that there is free communication It is now know however, that there is free communication between subarachnoid space and intercellular spaces between subarachnoid space and intercellular spaces allowing passage of macromolecules between cerebrospinal allowing passage of macromolecules between cerebrospinal fluid and neural tissues. fluid and neural tissues. It is the result of the occluding junctions between endothelial It is the result of the occluding junctions between endothelial cells and brain capillaries. cells and brain capillaries. Choroid plexus & Choroid plexus & CSF: CSF: Spaces filled with CSF: Spaces filled with CSF: pia arachnoid space pia arachnoid space subarachnoid space subarachnoid space = act as water cushion, fills the brain ventricles = act as water cushion, fills the brain ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord.0 and the central canal of the spinal cord.0 CSF characteristics CSF characteristics It is a clear colorless liquid, low specific gravity 1.004 It is a clear colorless liquid, low specific gravity 1.004 to 1.007. to 1.007. Contents of CSF = potassium, sodium, Contents of CSF = potassium, sodium, chloriod chloriod, some , some glucose and some amount of protein, few lymphocytes. glucose and some amount of protein, few lymphocytes. Secretions = occurs at the choroid plexus in the roof of Secretions = occurs at the choroid plexus in the roof of the 3rd and 4th ventricle, medial wall of the parts of the the 3rd and 4th ventricle, medial wall of the parts of the lateral ventricle. lateral ventricle. Produced at 0.5 liters per day. Produced at 0.5 liters per day. Cover layer of the choroid plexus is a single layer of Cover layer of the choroid plexus is a single layer of columnar columnar ependymal ependymal cells with apical. Bulbous cells with apical. Bulbous microvilli microvilli.. CSF pathway CSF pathway Choroid plexus, lateral ventricle Choroid plexus, lateral ventricle foramen of foramen of monroe monroe - ->>3rd 3rd - ->>iter iter- -> 4th ventricle > 4th ventricle foramina foramina at the roof of the 4th ventricle at the roof of the 4th ventricle - ->> ( median foramen of ( median foramen of Magendie Magendie, lateral foramina , lateral foramina of of Luschka Luschka subarachnoid space subarachnoid space arachnoid arachnoid villi villi absorbed mainly into the cranial venous absorbed mainly into the cranial venous sinuses sinuses Thank you Thank you