Anatomy & Physiology

BASIC CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

CHEMISTRY AND HOMEOSTASIS Maintaining the proper assortment and quantity of thousands of different chemicals in your body, and monitoring the interactions of these chemicals with one another, are two important aspects of homeostasis. the lowest level of structural organization, consists of atoms and molecules.

Chemistry
is the science of the structure and interactions of matter. All living and nonliving things consist of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass is the amount of matter in any object, which does not change. Weight, the force of gravity acting on matter, does change

Basic Chemical Terms

1. Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass. 2. Mass amount of matter in any object which does not change. 3. Weight the force of gravity acting on matter, does change. 4. Energy has no mass but it can be measured. Drives all chemical reaction in the body. Sun is the ultimate source of energy in the planet. 5. Elements fundamental substance composing of matter. 6. Atoms building blocks of elements. 7. Molecules combination of two or more atoms of same element held together by chemical bonds.

6. Compound two or more atoms of different elements bound together. 7. Mixtures substance composed of two or more compounds physically intermixed together. Types: a. Solution homogenous mixture of two or more components. Composed of the solvent and solute. The substance present in greatest quantity is called solvent. The substance present in smaller amount is solute. b. Colloids heterogeneous mixture that appear milky and translucent. c. Suspension heterogeneous mixture with large, often visible solutes.

8. Ions charged particles. Ion dissolved in solution are called electrolytes. Cation positively charged. Anion negatively charged. 9. Bonds chemical union of two or more atoms. Types: a. Ionic bond electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another. b. Covalent bond electrons are shared by atoms. c. Hydrogen Bond hydrogen atoms already linked covalently to one electronegative atom is attracted by another electronegative atom.

How matter is formed

Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. a. Solids, such as bones and teeth, are compact and have a definite shape and volume. b. Liquids, such as blood plasma, have a definite volume and assume the shape of their container. c. Gases, like oxygen and carbon dioxide, have neither a definite shape nor volume. All forms of matterboth living and nonlivingare made up of a limited number of building blocks called chemical elements.

Chemical Element a building block that forms all matter in both living and non living things. Chemical Symbol one or two letter of elements name. There are 26 elements consist the body - Major elements 96% of the body mass C, 0, H, N - Lesser elements 3.8 % of the body mass Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Cl, Fe, S - Trace Elements present in tiny amount 0.2 of the body mass. Al, B, Cr, Co, Cu, F, I, Mn, Mo, Se, Si, Sn,V, Zn

Chemical Element & Symbol

Major Elements Oxygen (O)

% of total Body Mass

Significance

65

Part of water and many organic (carbon-containing) molecules; used to generate ATP, a molecule used by cells to temporary store chemical energy. Forms the backbone chains and rings of all organic molecules; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Constituent of water and most organic molecules; ionized form (H+) makes body fluids more acidic. Components of all proteins and nucleic acids.

Carbon (C)

18.5

Hydrogen (H)

9.5

Nitrogen (N)

3.2

Chemical Element & Symbol Lesser Elements

Calcium (Ca)

% of total Body Mass

1.5

Significance

Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth; ionized form needed for blood clotting, release some hormones, contraction of muscles and many other processes. Component of nucleic acids and ATP; required for normal bone and tooth structures. Intracellular cell cation Components of some vitamins and proteins. Extracellular cations; essential for maintaining water balance; needed to generate action potentials. Intracellular anions. Essential for maintaining water balances.

Phosphorus (P)

1.0

Potassium (K) Sulfur (S) Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl)

0.35 0.25 0.2 0.2

Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe)

0.1 0.005 Needed for action of many enzymes, increase the rate of chemical reactions Part of haemoglobin and some enzymes.

Structures of Atom
Atom is the smallest unit of matter that retain its properties and characteristics of an element. Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom, has a diameter less than 0.1 nanometer.

Subatomic Particles:
Proton (+) positively charges found within the nucleus. Neutron uncharged or neutral found with in the nucleus. Electron (-) negatively charged that moves in space surrounding nucleus. They do not follow a fixed path or orbit but instead form a negatively charged cloud that envelops the nucleus.

Electron Shells Regions around nucleus that contains specific grouped of electrons that move. 1st 2 electrons 2nd 8 electrons 3rd 18 electrons No. of electrons = no. of protons

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Atomic Number it is the number of protons in an atom. Mass number - the sum of its protons and neutrons.

Isotopes are atoms of an element that have different number of neutrons and therefore different mass. Radioactive Isotopes are unstable (spontaneously change); their nucleus decay into a stables configuration. Half life the time required for half of the radioactive atoms to decay into more stable form.

 The half-life of C-14, which is used to determine the age of organic samples, is 5600 years; the half-life of I-131, an important clinical tool, is 8 days.

Atomic Mass
Atomic Mass also called Atomic Weight. It is the average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes. Dalton the standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms and their subatomic particles. Also known as AMU (Atomic Mass Unit). Neutron 1.008 daltons Proton 1.007 daltons Electron 0.0005 daltons

Ions, Molecules and Compound

Ions charged particles. An atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal number of protons and electrons. Ion dissolved in solution are called electrolytes. - called when an atoms gain or gives up electrons. Types: Cation positively charged. Anion negatively charged.

Ionization is the process of giving up or gaining electrons. - an ion of an atom is symbolized by writing its chemical symbol followed by the number of its positive (+) or negative (-) charges. Ex. Ca+ - it stands for a calcium ion that has two positive charges because it loses 2 electrons.

Molecules a resulting combination when two or more atoms shared electrons. Molecular Formula it indicates the elements and the number of atoms of each elements that make up a molecule. - a molecule may consist of two or more atoms of the same kind. Ex. Molecular formula for oxygen is O2 The subscript 2 indicates that the molecule contains 2 atoms of oxygen. Two or more different kinds of atoms may also form a molecule, as in a water molecule (H2O). In H2O one atom of oxygen shares electrons with two atoms of hydrogen

Compound is a substance that contains atom of two or more different elements. Ex. Water H2O Table Salt NaCl

Free Radicals is an electrically charged atoms or group of atoms with unpaired electron in the outer shell. - Having an unpaired electron makes free radical unstable, highly reactive and destructive to nearby molecules. - they become stable by either giving up their unpaired electron to, or taking on an electron from, another molecules.

Free Radicals and Their effect

In our body several processes can generate free radicals, including exposure to UV radiation from the sunlight, exposure to xrays and certain harmful substance and some reactions that occur during normal metabolism process. Among many disorders, disease and condition that are linked to an oxygenderived free radicals are cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, emphysema, diabetes mellitus cataract, rheumatoid arthritis and deterioration associated with aging. Consuming more anti-oxidant thought to slow the pace of damage caused by free radicals. (Selenium, zinc, beta-carotene, and vitamins C and E)

Chemical Bonds
It is the forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or compound. Valence Shell number of electrons in its outermost shell. Formation of chemical bond of an atom to another atom depends on it. An atom with a valence shell holding 8 electrons are chemically stable, which means unlikely to form chemical bonds with another atom.

Types of Chemical Bond

1. Ionic Bond force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite charges. 2. Covalent Bond two or more atoms share electrons rather that gaining and losing them. Atoms form a covalent bonded molecule by sharing one, two, three pairs of valence electrons. 3. Hydrogen Bonds - forms when a hydrogen atom with partial positive charge attracts the partial negative charge of neighboring electronegative atoms. It is a result from attraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules.

Chemical Reaction
Occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms. Are the foundation of all life processes and the interaction of valence electrons are the basis of all chemical reactions. Reactants starting substance Products ending substance

Forms of Energy and Chemical Reactions

Energy is the capacity to do work. Potential Energy it is an energy stored by matter due to its position. Kinetic Energy it is an energy associated with motion. Chemical Energy is a form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds and molecules.

The total amount of energy present at the beginning and end of a chemical reaction is the same. Law of Conservation of Energy energy can be created nor destroyed, it may be converted to one form to another.

Patterns of Chemical Reaction

1. Synthesis: A + B AB

- a bigger compound is formed by union of two or more atoms. In terms of metabolism, synthetic reaction is called anabolic. Synthetic reaction needs energy. 2. Decomposition: AB A+B

- a large molecule is broken down into constituent parts. - in the body this type of reaction is catabolic. - these reactions release energy stored in the bonds between the atoms.

3. Exchange or Displacement:

- it involves simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions wherein bonds are both broken and made. 4. Reversible Reactions: - the products can revert to the original reactants. A reversible reaction is indicated by two half arrows pointing in opposite directions.

Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions

Chemical bonds represent stored chemical energy. Chemical reaction occurs when new bonds are formed or old bonds are broken between atoms. Exergonic Reaction release more energy than they absorb Endergonic Reaction absorb more energy than they release.

Action Energy
- energy needed to break chemical bond in the reactant to start of reactions. Reactants starting substance Products ending substance - initial energy investment is needed to start a reaction.

Concentration strengthening a solution. - is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. - the more particles of matter is present in a confined space; the greater the chance that they collide.

Temperature - is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. - increase temperature; increasing movement; increase collision.

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND SOLUTIONS

Inorganic compounds are compounds that are usually lack carbon and are simple in structure. - may have ionic and covalent bonds. Ex: water, salt, bases and acids - 55 60% H2O - 1-3 % other inorganic

Inorganic Compounds that contains carbon are:

Carbon dioxide Bicarbonate Carbonic Acid (CO2) (HCO3) (H2CO3)

Organic Compounds
- compounds that always contains carbon and usually contain hydrogen and always have covalent bond. - Most are large molecules. - 38-48% of the body.

Water
Most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living system. Nearly all the bodys chemical reactions occurs in watery medium. Polarity is the important property of water. Polarity the positive or negative state in which a body reacts to a magnetic, electric, or other field. - is charge inequality on two ends of any molecule

Polarity of Water
Due to the unequal distribution of electrons in water molecule, one part of the molecule is more negatively charged than the other part. This is caused by the property of 'electronegativity', which can be defined as ability of an element to attract electrons. If the atoms that make up a molecule have different electronegativities, that differ substantially, they attract electrons unequally, causing polarity.

1. In each water molecule, the oxygen atom attracts more than its "fair share" of electrons. 2. This results in a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom, and a partial + charge on the hydrogen atoms. 3. Electrostatic attraction between adjacent water molecules results in Hydrogen bond formation.

 The polarity of water molecule arises due to its peculiar molecular structure. The molecule is made up of one oxygen atom covalently bonded with two hydrogen atoms. A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electron pairs with each other to achieve stability. The polarity of water molecule arises due to its greater electronegativity or electron loving nature, than hydrogen. Even though the pairs of electrons are shared with the hydrogen atoms, they are not shared equally as oxygen pulls the electrons more towards itself. This gives rise to a greater negative charge on the side of oxygen atom and a positive charge on the hydrogen atoms. That means, water molecule becomes polar because of the greater ability of oxygen to attract electrons toward itself.

Importance of Polarity of Water

Hydrogen Bonding Due to the polar nature of water, a special kind of bonding occurs between every molecule of water and its surrounding molecules. The negatively charged oxygen atom attracts surrounding hydrogen atoms of other water molecules, which are positively charged, creating a weak bond called the 'Hydrogen Bond'. This hydrogen bonding is responsible for most of the peculiar properties of water. High Specific Heat & Heat of Vaporization Specific heat is the amount of heat absorbed by one gram of a substance to raise its temperature by 1 degree Celsius. Heat of vaporization is the heat absorbed by a substance to transform from liquid to gaseous state. Water has a high specific heat and higher heat of vaporization than most substances due to hydrogen bonding. These two properties endow the water molecules with an ability to buffer large temperature fluctuations and regulate the climate on Earth.

 Cohesion & Adhesion The hydrogen bonding between molecules makes water more 'sticky' leading to a higher degree of cohesion and adhesion. Adhesion and cohesion are important properties of water which play a big role in its biological functions. Higher Surface Tension A higher surface tension of water endows it with the property of capillary action, which helps it rise against gravity through tubes and veins of plants to reach greater heights.

 Water As Solvent of Life The polarity of water molecule makes it a universal solvent. It can dissolve salts, acids, sugars, as well as alkalis and gases. Most cell components including proteins, polysaccharides and DNA dissolve in water making it the basis of life.

Water as Solvent
Is called universal solvent, substance that can dissolve all other materials. Solvent dissolving another substance. Solute substance that dissolve in solvent. Hydrophilic easily dissolve in water. Hydrophobic molecules that contain mainly nonpolar covalent bound. They are not water soluble.

Importance:
The ability of water to form solutions is essential to health and survival. Water enables dissolved reactants to collide and form new products. Water also dissolves waste products which allows them to be flushed out in the body in urine.

Water in Chemical Reaction

It participates as product or reactants in chemical reactions. It serves as the medium for most chemical reaction in the body. Hydrolysis decomposition reactions, break down large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by addition of water. Dehydration Synthesis Reaction two smaller molecules join to form a larger molecules. Water is one product formed.

Thermal Properties of Water

Water can absorb or release a relatively large amount of heat with only a modest change its own temperature. It have a high heat capacity. Contains large number of hydrogen bond. Large amount of water in the body lessens the impact of environmental temperature changes, helping to maintain homeostasis of body temperature. Water also require a large amount of heat to change from liquid to gas, thus heat of vaporization is high.

 As water evaporates from the surface of skin it removes a large quantity of heat providing an important cooling mechanism to the body.

Water as Lubricant
Water is a major component of mucus and other lubricating fluids through out the body.

Solutions, Colloids and Suspension

Solutions - a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. - clear and transparent. - solute particles are very small.

Colloid - is a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another substance. - appears translucent and opaque. - solute particles are large enough to scatter light. Tyndall effect - which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid.

Suspension - is a homogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation. - solutes are accumulate on the bottom of the container. - large visible solutes.

Concentration
Percentage ( mass per volume) - number of grams of substance per 100ml of solutions. Ex. To make a 10% NaCl solution Take 10gm of NaCl and add enough water to make a total 100ml of solutions.

 Molarity = moles (mol) per 1L - a 1 molar (1M) solutions 1 mole of a solute in 1 liter of solutions. Mole is amount of only substance that has a mass in grams equal to the sum of atomic mass as all its atoms. Ex. NaCl Na atomic mass = 22. 99 Cl atomic mass = 35.45 58.44 mole of NaCl To Make a 1 molar (1M) solution of NaCl - dissolve 1 mole of NaCl (58.44 gm) in enough water to make a total of 1L of solution.

INORGANIC ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Dissociate when inorganic acids, bases or salt dissolve in water, they separate into ions and become surrounded by water molecules. Acids is a substance that dissolve into one or more hydrogen ions (H) and one or more anions. - it donates hydrogen (H) proton donor

Bases removes (H) from a solutions, proton acceptor. - dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH) and one or more cations. Salt dissociates into cations and anions neither of which is H or OH.

 The body salt such as potassium chloride (KCl) are electrolytes that are important for carrying electrical impulses. Acids and bases react with one another to form salts.

Acid-Base Balance: The Concept of pH

pH s a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It ranges from 0-14 Neutral -7 Acid - below 7 Base - above 7 This scale is based on the concentration of hydrogen ions (H) moles per liter. pH 7 H and OH is equal

 The more hydrogen ions dissolved in a solution, the more acidic The more hydroxide ions dissolved in a solution, the more basic.

Maintaining pH: Buffer System

Blood pH = 7.35-7.45 neutral below 7.35 acidosis above 4.45 alkalosis Buffer system function is to convert strong acids and bases into weak acids and bases, to maintain homeostasis. Buffer a chemical compound that can convert strong acids and bases into a weak ones by removing or adding protons.

Carbonic acid-Bicarbonate Buffer system

One important buffer system in the body. Carbonic acid can act as a weak acid Bicarbonate can act as a weak basic

Example:
* Excess in Hydrogen ions; an acidic condition HCO3 can act as a weak basic to remove excess hydrogen ions.

* Shortage in Hydrogen ions; an alkaline condition H2CO3 - can acts as a weak acid to donate hydrogen ions.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Carbon can form bonds with one thousand of other carbon atoms to produce large molecules. Due to this property the body can build many different organic compound which has a unique structures and function. - organic compounds are mostly held by covalent bond.

Chemical Constituent of Living Matter

- compounds in the body that are classified as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acid.

Carbohydrates
- 2-3% of total body mass. - Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. - Source of chemical energy for generating ATP (is the main energy source for the majority of cellular functions) needed to drive human body functions . - It contain one water molecules for each carbon atoms, thus termed as watered carbon.

Chemical Groupings
Monosaccharides
- Smallest Carbohydrate molecules. -contains from 3-7 carbon atoms. Ex. Glucose, galactose, mannose and fructose.

Disaccharides
- combination of two monosaccharides. Ex. Maltose, lactose and sucrose

Polysaccharides
-Long chain of monosaccharides. Ex. Starch Cellulose storage form of plant glucose. Glycogen storage form of glucose in animals.

Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Structural ex. Cellulose and Chitin 2. Energy source ex. Starch and glycogen 3. Transport Function ex. Glycoproteins in plasma like transferrin and thyroglobulin 4. Regulatory Function ex. Some glycoproteins like FSH, LH, TSH 5. Catalytic Function ex. Some glycoproteins such as ribonuclease

6. Antigen-Antibody ex. Interferons, RH factor 7. Cell lubrication and supportive function ex. Sialoglycoproteins 8. Components of cellular membrane ex. Prothrombin, fibrinogen 9. Components of protective cellular coats.

Sources:

Lipids
- (fat) 18-25% of body mass. - contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. - they are hydrophobic fewer polar covalent bond because of smaller proportion of electromagnetive oxygen atoms. - not dissolve in water. Lipoproteins are soluble to water because the proteins are on the outside and the lipid are on the inside. (lipid molecules joins the hydrophilic protein)

Classification
Simple Lipids -Esters of fatty acids with various alcohol Ex. Triglyceride Neutral fats Waxes beeswax and lanolin. Complex lipids - esters of fatty acids containing other group in addition to an alcohol and fatty acids. Ex. Phospholipids glycolipids Precursor or derived lipids Precursor - a compound that participates in the chemical reaction that produces another compound. Derived Lipids - derived lipid is define to as the products of simple and compound lipids. Ex. Steroids, prostaglandin

Functions of Lipids
1. As membrane structural components. 2. Intracellular storage depot of metabolic fuel. 3. Transport form of a metabolic fuel 4. Receptors in nerve ending membranes. 5. Determinants of immunologic specify 6. Enzyme co-factor

Proteins
Make 12 18 percent of body mass Large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Much more complex than carbohydrates and lipids. Sources:

Classification
According to composition: a. Simple Protein contain amino acids only. b. Compound Protein complex and conjugated with non amino acids. ex. Lipoproteins, glycoproteins According to conformation: a. Fibrous ex. Collagen, elastin , keratin b. Globular ex. Enzyme, albumin

Functions:
1. Catalytic role ex. Enzymes 2. Contraction ex. Actin and myosin 3. Gene regulation ex. Histone, non-histone nuclear proteins 4. Transport ex. Transferrin 5. Protection ex. Immunoglobulin 6. Regulatory ex. Protein hormones 7. Structural ex. Collagen

Nucleic Acids: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) forms the inherited genetic material inside each human cell. Gene is a segment of a DNA molecule. Our genes determine the traits we inherit, and by controlling protein synthesis they regulate most of the activities that take place in body cells throughout our lives. Ribonucleic acid (RNA), the second type of nucleic acid, relays instructions from the genes to guide each cells synthesis of proteins from amino acids.

DNA
A nucleic acid is a chain of repeating monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide of DNA consists of three parts: 1. Nitrogenous base. DNA contains four different nitrogenous bases, which contain atoms of C, H, O, and N. In DNA the four nitrogenous bases are Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are larger, double-ring bases called Purines; Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) are smaller, single-ring bases called Pyrimidines. 2. Pentose sugar. A five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose attaches to each base in DNA. 3. Phosphate group. Phosphate groups (PO43) alternate with pentose sugars to form the backbone of a DNA strand; the bases project inward from the backbone chain

RNA
is single-stranded. The sugar in the RNA nucleotide is the pentose ribose, and RNA contains the pyrimidine base uracil (U) instead of thymine. The sequence of nucleotides allows RNA to encode genetic information. Three different kinds of RNA: a. Messenger RNA - carry the genetic information that directs the synthesis of proteins. b. Ribosomal RNA - links amino acids together to form proteins. c. Transfer RNA - deliver amino acids to the ribosome