CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING BFC 2062

CHAPTER 1 SUBSTRUCTURE
Introduction Types and functions of of foundation Foundation design principles and relationship to soil stability

What are the basic components?



The various components that make a structure are basic components. These include the slabs, beams, girders and of course the foundation. Even joints and rivets are basic components of a structure. These components have various properties that impart the required elasticity, tensility, strength, stability and compression to a structure.

 

What is substructure?


The lowest portion of the building structure. Usually located below the ground level. A foundation is a part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.

Foundations
Definition:  A foundation is a part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.


Every structure, whether big or small, needs a foundation. The foundation carries the load of the building and provides it stability.

The foundation transmits the loads imposed on the structure to the soil below it and therefore the type of soil used is very important. Depending upon whether the soil is stable or loose and unstable and the type and size of the structure, the foundation is designed as either shallow or deep. A stable foundation should bear the loads without sinking or settling more than an inch at the most. Even this settlement should be uniform under the entire building.

Construction Terminology


The foundation is known as the substructure (under the soil structure) and the building itself is known as the superstructure (above ground structure). We can say that the main function of the foundation is to support the load of the superstructure and transmit the load evenly to the soil

Main Functions


To distribute the load of the structure over a larger area. To transmit the load uniformly under the structure. To provide a firm, level and strong base over which the superstructure may be constructed. To avoid any settlement or other movement that can cause damage to any part of the building.

To increase the stability of the structure by preventing its tilting or overturning against winds, earthquakes and uneven distribution of live load. (Lateral Stability)

Load

Ground Level

450

Figure 1.1 Foundation

Forces pushing down must equal the forces pushing up EQUILIBRIUM

Heave
If the forces pushing up is greater than the forces pushing down the building will be pushed upwards HEAVE

If forces pushing down is greater than the forces pushing up the building will sink SUBSIDENCE

Subside

Subsidence caused by a broken drain

Heave caused by a broken drain

Shear failure in a strip foundation

Example: Width of foundation strip 600 mm Width of wall 2 x projection (P) therefore P = - 257 343 343/2 = 172 mm

The result of the projection (P) must be the same or less than thickness (t) for unreinforced strip foundation

Problems if the rules are not followed

The load spreads at about 400 through the foundation

Loads Acting on the Foundation



The foundation has to bear more than just the load of the superstructure. A load can be defined as anything, which exerts pressure or thrust on a structure. The following are the different types of loads that act on the building foundation: Live Load (Qk) - A live load or imposed load is a movable, temporary or transferable load. This can include moving vehicles, people walking or children jumping.

Types of loads


Dead Load (Gk)- This load is permanent and immovable. It is the non- transferable load of the structure itself. Wind Load (Wk) - This load is applicable when the structure is tall. Snow Load - This load is considered when the structure is situated in snowy, hilly areas.

The Total Building Load

 

 

The total load that a building transfers to the subsoil is composed of dead load, imposed load and wind load. Dead load is the force attribute to the structural mass of the construction. This refers to the combined weight of bricks, concrete, timber, tiles, etc. converted to unit of force (Note: kg x 9.81 = N). Imposed load results from the combined force of non-permanent fixtures and fitting such as furniture and person using the building. For design purposes 1.5 kN/m2 is permissible. Snow load is also an imposed loading, and an allowance of 1.5 kN/m2 for flat roofs and 0.75 kN/m2 for pitched roofs over 300 should be included.

Wind loading is difficult to define as there are numerous variables to combine before a factor relating to a dynamic force can be achieved. The procedure is explained in BS CP3 : Ch. V : Pt.2 : 1972 (wind loading) or BS 6399: Part 2 (CP for Wind Loads)

1 Load distribution of frame structure: Load of roof coverings plus any rain, wind and other loads transfered to roof slab. Then, load from slab accepted by beam and transfered to columns. Load in infill panel transfered to edge beam a base. Then main and edge beam loads transferred to columns. Live and loads of floor transferred to secondary beam and then transferred to main beams. All total column loads transferred to foundation. Finally, total on foundation load transferred to subsoil.

Cross section showing direction of forces

In the design of foundation, the areas of the bases in contact with the ground should be such that the safe bearing pressure will not be exceeded. Settlement takes place during the working life of the structure, therefore the design loading to be considered when calculating the base areas should be those that apply to serviceability limit state and typical values that can be taken are 1. Dead plus imposed load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk 2. Dead plus wind load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Wk 3. Dead plus imposed plus wind load = 1.0 Gk + 0.8Qk + 0.8Wk These partial factors of safety are suggested as it is highly unlikely that the maximum imposed load and the worst wind load will occur simultaneously

For ultimate state: 1. Dead plus imposed load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk 2. Dead plus wind load = 0.9Gk + 1.4Wk 3. Dead plus imposed plus wind load = 1.2( Gk + Qk + Wk)

Recommendations for the loading on buildings are given in the British Standards BS 6399, Part 1. Design loads for Buildings. Table 5 to 12

A table of values for some useful dead loads and imposed loads is as below:
Material Aluminium, cast Asphalt paving Bricks, common Bricks, pressed Clay, dry Clay, wet Concrete, reinforced Glass, plate Lead Sand, dry Sand, wet Water Steel Weight (kN/m3) 26 23 19 22 19-22 21-25 24 27 112 16 19 18 21 9.81 77

Wall Brick wall, 115 mm thick Gypsum plaster, 25 mm thick Glazing, single

kN/m2 2.6 0.5 0.3 Distrubuted load Weight (kN/m2) 3.0 5.0 1.5 2.5 5.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.7 3.6 1.4 9.0 3.6 1.8 1.8 2.7 Concentrated load Weight kN

Floor areas usage Classrooms Dance halls Flats and houses Garages, passengers cars Gymnasiums Hospital wards Hotel bedrooms Offices for general use

Example to find the dead load of a simply supported beam. A simply supported reinforced concrete beam with span 6 m with it section 250 x 450 mm and a brickwall at height 3 m at mid span. Self weight of beam (p) = 24 kN/m3 Weight of beam = pbh 24.0 x 0.25 x 0.45 = 2.7 kN/m Weight of brick wall = 2.6 x 3 = 7.8 kN/m Total dead load on the beam = 2.7 + 7.8 = 10.5 kN/m

Load combination for ulitmate state for simply supported beam 1.4Gk 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk 4m The one span simply supported beam with span 4 m carries a distributed dead load including self weight of 25 kN/m, a permanent concentrated partition load of 30 kN at mid span and a distributed imposed load of 10 kN/m.

Foundations are necessary to be strong and stable, the soil type of the particular area might not be solid. Inspection of the soil and surrounding areas is necessary to determine the type of foundation that needs to be constructed.

How To Select a Proper Foundation Type

Generally the type of foundation is selected based on: The loads that must be transferred from the structure to the soil strata supporting it. This also should evaluate the ability of the soil to support the ultimate loads.

The capability of the structure that will safely transfer the loads from the superstructure to the foundation bed. The possibility and extent of settlement of the soil due to the presence of mines and quarries in the vicinity. The ability for engineers to fix the depth of the foundation.

Rock or soil Massive igneous bedrock Sandstone Shales and mudstone Gravel, sand and gravel, compact Medium dense sand Loose fine sand Hard clay Medium clay Soft Clay

Typical bearing value (kN/m2) 10,000 2,000 to 4,000 600 to 2,000 600 100 to 300 Less than 100 300 to 600 100 to 300 Less than 75

Typical allowable bearing values

The ability to determine if the underground water has sulfates or other salts that can degrade the foundation materials.

Types of Soils
The following are the different types of soils on which foundations are constructed: Soft soils - This soil is compressible and yields when loaded. Examples are clayey soil and loam. Small buildings or ordinary structures can be built on these types of soils.

Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive soils. Examples of this type of soil are sand and gravel. Hard or rocky soils - These are incompressible and strong soils. They can withstand heavy loads without yielding. Multistoried buildings and water reservoirs are designed on such soils.

Soils Particles sizes: Clay particles Silt particles Sand particles Gravel particles Cobbles less than 0.002 mm between 0.002 and 0.06 mm between 0.06 and 2 mm between 2 and 60 mm between 60 and 200 mm

Silt is fine particles of sand, easily suspended in water. Loam is very fine particles of clay easily dissolved in water

Factors affecting foundation design



Selection of foundation type and design depends on two distinct variables:

 

a. The total building load b. The nature and quality of the subsoil

The Nature and Quality of the Subsoil



To decide on which type of foundation to use, the first thing to do is examine the subsoil material below the level of proposed foundation. Cohesive subsoil contain very fine particles, relying on water for strength and bonding. They are predominantly clay but may contain sand and other larger particles which will improve their bearing capacity.

The weakness of cohesive subsoil to construction are :



It have high swelling and shrinkage characteristics. Responsive to dehydration from drought or extraction of ground-water by trees. Ground swell could follow felling of large trees and is very likely to occur where new building on a sloping site provides a superimposed load as shown in next slide.

Shear failure of subsoil (Cartwheel failure)

Failure on inclined sites

Non-cohesive sandy subsoil are less of a problem. It is unaffected by water and rely on size closeness of compaction for strength. The consolidation of non-cohesive soil is occurred rapidly due to building load. Sloping on this type of soil is difficult to prove.

It is because of running ground-water will erode the finer particles and leaving the coarser material in an unstable condition. Usually, if the water table is high, construction on non-cohesive subsoil will need the construction of drainage.

Types of Foundation
Spread footings Shallow Foundation Mat Piles Caissons Types of Foundation Drilled Shafts Pressure-injected footings Mandrel-driven thin shells filled with concrete Auger-cast piles Anchors
Figure 1.2 Types of Foundations

Deep Foundation

The type of foundation used is selected based on the type of the structure that has to be built, the type of soil and the type of material used. They are classified into shallow and deep foundations.

Shallow foundations are usually embedded a meter or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete (or other materials) which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Another common type is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface.

Shallow Foundations for low-rise construction



When the foundation is placed just below the superstructure, it is known as shallow foundation. The purpose of these is to transmit the loads of the superstructure over a wider area. These foundations are suitable for smaller buildings.

A deep foundation is a type of foundation. Deep foundations are distinguished from shallow foundations by the depth they are embedded into the ground. There are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common reasons are very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints (like property lines). There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts, caissons, and piers. The naming conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned concrete. Deep foundations can be installed by either driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and filling it with concrete, mass or reinforced

Spread Footings


Also known as footer or simply a footing. An enlargement at the bottom of a column or bearing wall that spreads the applied structural loads over a sufficiently large soil area. Typically, each column and each bearing wall has its own spread footing.

Characteristic of Spread Footings

  

Low Cost Ease of construction For small-medium size structures with moderate-good soil. For large structures with exceptionally good soil or shallow bedrock.

Spread footing may be built in different shapes and sizes to accommodate individual needs.

Types of spread footings based on size and shape

No 1 2 3 4 Types of Spread Footings Square Rectangular Circular Continuous (wall/strip footings) 5 6 7 Combined Ring Strap (cantilever footing) when columns are close together for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks when very close to a property line/other structure Applicable for a single centrally-located column when large moment load are present for light standards, flagpoles etc for bearing walls

CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY ON PAD FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING

  

PEGGING EXCAVATION WORKS PROVIDING A MATERIALS  REBAR  FORMWORK  CEMENT  SAND  AGGREGATE FORMWORK  EXCAVATE A WORKING SPACES FOR BETTER CONSTRUCTION

 

REINFORCEMENT INSTALLATION CONCRETING

   

MIXING POURING CURING TESTING

Stepped Foundation (Square footings)



This type of foundation is one of the pad foundation types. When the structure is to be constructed on the hill slopes, this type of foundation is used. The foundation trenches are excavated in steps and each step is filled with some concrete. Each block of concrete is overlapped by the next block, and so on. Square footings usually support a single centrally-located column.

Step no greater than 450 mm Overlap to be equal to or greater than the depth of the concrete foundation

Figure: Square Footings

Combined Footing Foundation



In this type, the two walls or columns of a superstructure are provided with a single combined footing. This is designed so that the center of gravity of the supporting area is in proportion to the center of gravity of the tow column loads. These can be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.

These are usefull when columns are located too close together for each to have its own footing.

Rectangular Spread Footings



It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is the longest dimension. These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of a square footing with a sufficiently large base area and when large moment loads are present.

Circular Spread Footings

 

This foundation are round in plan view. These are more frequently used as foundation for light standard, flagpoles, and power transmission line. If these foundation extend to a large depth, they may be have more like a deep foundation.

Continuous Spread Footings



This type of foundation is also known as wall foundation or strip foundation. It uses is to support bearing wall.

Ring Spread Footings



This footing are continuous footing that been wrapped into a circle. This type of footing is commonly used to support the walls of above-ground circular storage tanks.

Ring Spread Footing

Grillage Foundation


Used first with the Montauk Block Building in Chicago (1882). First foundation type specifically designed for flexure. This type of foundation is used for heavy buildings and where soil strength is weak.

It consists of steel sections laid at regular intervals and good quantities of cement concrete are laid on it. The structure is constructed over this plate. It is used where deep excavation for foundations is not possible and the structure is heavy.

Source: http://vulcanhammer.net/

Is a special type of isolated footing generally provided for heavily loaded steel stanchions. Specially, in those locations where bearing capacity of soil is poor. The depth of foundation is limited from 1m to 1.5m. The load of the column or stanchion is distributed or spread to a very large area by means of layers or tiers of joist, each tier being placed at right angles to the next tier.

Two Types
 

Steel Grillage Foundation Timber Grillage Foundation

Steel Grillage Foundation

 

Is constructed of steel beams. Structurally known as rolled steel joists (RSJ) and provided in two or more tiers. For double tier grillage (which commonly provided), the top tier of grillage beams is laid at right angles to the bottom tier. The joists or beams of each tier are held in position by 20mm diameter spacer bars with 25mm diameter pipe separators.

The grillage beams are embedded in concrete. A minimum clearance of 8 cm is kept between the grillage beams so that concrete can be easily poured and properly compacted. The distance between flanges should not exceed 30 cm or 1 times the flange width so that the filled concrete acts monolithically with the beams

Steel grillage foundation may also be provided for a masonry wall on soils of low bearing capacity. The grillage foundation for such a case consists of only one tier, though in some circumstances when the wall is wider and it carries heavy loads, two tiers may also be provided.

Timber Grillage Foundation



Provided for heavily loaded timber column or masonry wall. The foundation uses timber planks and timber beams in the place of steel joists. This foundation is specially useful in water logged areas where the bearing power of the soil is very low and where steel beams may get corroded due to subsoil water.

The loading on the soil is limited to 50 to 60 kN/m. No concrete embedded between the timber joist.

Raft Foundation


Also known as Mat Foundation or Floating Foundation. Used where heavily constructed loads are to be distributed over a large surface area. It is used where the soil is marshy, clayey or soft, with weak bearing capacity.

This consists of reinforced concrete slabs covering the entire area of construction, like a floor. Always made of reinforced concrete.

Consideration of using Raft Foundation

  

The structural loads are so high. The soil condition is so poor. The bottom of structure is located below groundwater table.


Raft foundation are more easier to waterproof.

Conditions for Mat Foundations _ Structural loads require large area to spread the load _ Soil is erratic and prone to differential settlements _ Structural loads are erratic _ Unevenly distributed lateral loads _ Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can accommodate; weight of the mat is a factor here _ Mat foundations are easier to waterproof

Deep Foundation
 

In cases where the soil stratum is not stable or strong, it is necessary to take the foundation deeper to reach the stable stratum. For instance, in cases of river bridges, it is important to reach soil stratum below the scour depth of the rivers to prevent settlement.

Types of Foundation
Spread footings Shallow Foundation Mat Piles Caissons Types of Foundation Drilled Shafts Pressure-injected footings Mandrel-driven thin shells filled with concrete Auger-cast piles Anchors
Which is best suited to certain loading and soil conditions?

Deep Foundation

Deep Foundation


Piles : slender prefabricated members that are prefabricated and driven or forced into the ground. Caissons : prefabricated boxes or cylinders that are sunk into the ground to some desired depth and filled with concrete. Drilled shafts : a slender cylindrical hole is drilled into the ground, inserted with reinforcing steel and filled with concrete.

Deep Foundation


Mandrel-driven tin shells filled with concrete : thin corrugated steel shell that are driven into ground using mandrel and filling with concrete. Auger-cast Piles: a slender cylindrical hole, drilled into the ground using a hollow-stem auger, pumped grout through the auger while it is retracted. Pressure-injected footings: cast-in-place concrete that is rammed into the soil using a drop hammer. Anchors: include several different kinds of deep foundations that are specifically designed to resist uplift loads.

Pile Foundation


 

Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface. The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity The main types of materials used for piles are wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting characteristic piles are classified accordingly.

Function of piles
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a pile foundations is:  to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground  to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load  A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile foundation may become considered. Further, a cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper than any other compared ground improvement costs.  In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers.

Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behaviour

  

End bearing piles (point bearing piles) Friction piles (cohesion piles ) Combination of friction and cohesion piles

End bearing piles



These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion. But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect on the capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water and consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of the pile is influenced by the results of the site investigate on and soil test.

End bearing piles

Friction piles
  

These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The process of driving such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types of pile foundations are commonly known as floating pile foundations.

Cohesion piles
  

These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This process of driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the porosity and compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore piles of this category are some times called compaction piles. During the process of driving the pile into the ground, the soil becomes moulded and, as a result loses some of its strength. Therefore the pile is not able to transfer the exact amount of load which it is intended to immediately after it has been driven. Usually, the soil regains some of its strength three to five months after it has been driven.

Friction or cohesion piles



Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in contact with the shaft of the pile.

Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles

 

An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate frictional resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at the bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a bell have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles (see fig.1-3)

Figure 1-3 under-reamed base enlargement to a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile

Classification of pile with respect to type of material

   

Timber Concrete Steel Composite piles

Concrete pile


Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles : Usually of square (see fig 1-4 b), triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced in short length in one metre intervals between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-casted so that they can be easily connected together in order to reach to the required length (fig 1-4 a) . This will not decrease the design load capacity. Reinforcement is necessary within the pile to help withstand both handling and driving stresses. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming more popular than the ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required .

Figure 1-4 a) concrete pile connecting detail. b) squared pre-cast concert pile

Driven and cast in place Concrete piles



Two of the main types used in the UK are: West s shell pile : Pre cast, reinforced concrete tubes, about 1 m long, are threaded on to a steel mandrel and driven into the ground after a concrete shoe has been placed at the front of the shells. Once the shells have been driven to specified depth the mandrel is withdrawn and reinforced concrete inserted in the core. Diameters vary from 325 to 600 mm. Franki Pile: A steel tube is erected vertically over the place where the pile is to be driven, and about a metre depth of gravel is placed at the end of the tube. A drop hammer, 1500 to 4000kg mass, compacts the aggregate into a solid plug which then penetrates the soil and takes the steel tube down with it. When the required depth has been achieved the tube is raised slightly and the aggregate broken out. Dry concrete is now added and hammered until a bulb is formed. Reinforcement is placed in position and more dry concrete is placed and rammed until the pile top comes up to ground level.

Steel piles
 

Steel piles: (figure 1.4) steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths. Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not as great as one might think. Although tar coating or cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works. It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0.2-0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as 1mm/year

F i g u r e 1 6 S t e e l p i l e s c r o s s s e c t i o n s

a) X- crosssection

b) H - crosssection

c) steel pipe

Composite piles


Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level (see figure 1.7).

Protecting timber piles from decay: a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level. b) by extending pile cap below water level

Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil

A simplified division into driven or bored piles is often employed. Driven piles  Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the pile into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There may also be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction

Bored piles
 

Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally considered to be nondisplacement piles a void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can be produced by casting concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not requires temporary support except cloth to the ground surface. In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven into a hole which is bored as casing is advanced. A different technique, which is still essentially non-displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a concrete from an auger which is rotated into the granular soil, and hence produced a grouted column of soil.

There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles, particularly pre-formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles. The following are replacement piles:  Augered  Cable percussion drilling  Large-diameter under-reamed  Types incorporating pre caste concrete unite  Drilled-in tubes  Mini piles

Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material

Wood piles
   

 

The piles are easy to handle Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful. Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed. The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing capacity. Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders. The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.

Prefabricated concrete piles (reinforced) and pre stressed concrete piles.

   

    

Do not corrode or rot. Are easy to splice. Relatively inexpensive. The quality of the concrete can be checked before driving. Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material can be inspected before piling. Can be re driven if affected by ground heave. Construction procedure unaffected by ground water. Can be driven in long lengths. Can be carried above ground level, for example, through water for marine structures. Relatively difficult to cut. Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving. Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required. Sometimes problems with noise and vibration. Cannot be driven with very large diameters or in condition of limited headroom.

Driven and cast-in-place concrete piles  Permanently cased (casing left in the ground)  Temporarily cased or uncased (casing retrieved)  Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired length.  Relatively inexpensive.  Low noise level.  The piles can be cast before excavation.  Pile lengths are readily adjustable.  An enlarged base can be formed which can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum leading to much higher end bearing capacity.  Reinforcement is not determined by the effects of handling or driving stresses.  Heave of neighbouring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation and the development of negative skin friction forces on piles.

Driven and cast-in-place concrete piles  and the development of negative skin friction forces on piles.  Displacement of nearby retaining walls. Lifting of previously driven piles, where the penetration at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.  Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete, where forces at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.  Damage piles consisting of uncased or thinly cased green concrete due to the lateral forces set up in the soil, for example, necking or waisting. Concrete cannot be inspected after completion. Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes up shaft of piles when tube is withdrawn.  Light steel section or Precast concrete shells may be damaged or distorted by hard driving.  Limitation in length owing to lifting forces required to withdraw casing, nose vibration and ground displacement may a nuisance or may damage adjacent structures.  Cannot be driven where headroom is limited.  Relatively expensive.  Time consuming. Cannot be used immediately after the installation.  Limited length.

Bored and cast in -place (non -displacement piles)  Length can be readily varied to suit varying ground conditions.  Soil removed in boring can be inspected and if necessary sampled or in- situ test made.  Can be installed in very large diameters.  End enlargement up to two or three diameters are possible in clays.  Material of piles is not dependent on handling or driving conditions.  Can be installed in very long lengths.  Can be installed with out appreciable noise or vibrations.  Can be installed in conditions of very low headroom.  No risk of ground heave.  Susceptible to "waisting" or "necking" in squeezing ground.  Concrete is not placed under ideal conditions and cannot be subsequently inspected.  Water under artesian pressure may pipe up pile shaft washing out cement.  Enlarged ends cannot be formed in cohesionless materials without special techniques.  Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine structures.  Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravely soils requiring base grouting to achieve economical base resistance.

Steel piles (Rolled steel section)  The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to desired length.  Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil during driving is low (steel section H or I section piles) can be relatively easily spliced or bolted.  Can be driven hard and in very long lengths.  Can carry heavy loads.  Can be successfully anchored in sloping rock.  Small displacement piles particularly useful if ground displacements and disturbance critical.  The piles will corrode,  Will deviate relatively easy during driving.  Are relatively expensive.

Revision


Piles are made out of different materials. In short state the advantages and disadvantages of these materials. Piles can be referred as displacement and non-displacement piles. State the differences and the similarities of these piles Piles can be classified as end-bearing piles cohesive or friction piles. Describe the differences and similarity of these piles. Piles can be classified as bored or driven state the differences.

Factors to be considered in selecting pile type

The required diameter The applied loads The required length (limit: 18m)

Factors to be considered in selecting a pile type (timber, steel, concrete or composite)

The anticipated driving conditions

The durability of pile material in specific environment

The local availability of each pile type

The Main Types of Pile in General Use



Driven piles usually timbers, concrete, or steel, driven into the soil by blows of hammer)

Driven and cast-in-place piles The driven cast in-situ pile is installed by a crane rig using a leader with an open ended tube and cylindrical drop hammer. The tubes are to be fill with concrete, then after the concrete have reached it strength, tube may or may not be withdrawn.

Jacked piles steel or concrete units jacked into the soil. Bored and cast-in-place piles piles formed by boring a hole into the soil and filling it with concrete. Composite piles combinations of two or more of the preceding types, or combinations of different materials in the same type of pile.

Timber Piles


Characteristics:


Usually tapered  Diameter (head)  Length Typical axial loads

: : :

150 - 450mm 6 20m 100 400kN

Advantages & Disadvantages

No Advantages Disadvantages

Low construction cost

Medium axial loads (100 - 400 kN)

Used as waterfront structures

Susceptible to decay Susceptible to damage when

For light driving conditions

driving

(in loose sands and soft to medium clays)

Damage during driving can be controlled by:  Using lightweight hammers  Using steel bands near butt  Using a steel shoe on the toe  Pre-drilling

Steel Piles


H-Piles:  Length : 15 50 m  For axial load : 350 1800 kN  Have a small displacement piles  High strength  For hard driving conditions bedrock  If the pile will encounter hard driving, it may be necessary to use a hardened steel point to protect its toe.

No 1 2 3 4 5

Advantages For high-capacity foundations For large loads Can be driven through hard soils Have highest tensile strength Easy to splice (good choice when required length > 18m)

Disadvantages Expensive to purchase Noisy to driven May be subject to excessive corrosion

Easy to cut

Pipe Piles:  Diameter : 200 1000mm  Length : 30 50m  For axial load : 450 7000 kN  Have a larger moment of inertia than H-piles, so they may be better choice if large lateral loads are present.  Pipe piles may be driven with closed-end or open-end .

Concrete Piles


Characteristics:  Precast reinforced concrete  Shape : square or octagonal cross section  Diameter :250 600mm  Length : 12 30m  For axial loads : 450 3500 kN

Advantages & Disadvantages

No 1 Advantages Best suited for use as friction piles that don't meet refusal during driving (refusal: pile can't be driven any further, so it becomes necessary to cut off the portion) 2 Best suited for toe-bearing piles where the required length is uniform and predictable 3 Less expensive than steel piles Succeptible to damage during handling or driving 4 Have a large load capacity Not suited for hard driving conditions Difficult to cut Disadvantages Expensive to splice and cut

Composite Piles


Composite piles: one that uses two or more materials.



Concrete-filled steel pipe piles  Have more up-lift capacity  Longer useful life in corrosive environment

Plastic-steel composite piles  Used in waterfront applications  Higher strength than timber piles  Longer life  Higher cost

Piling Method


Pile Driving Rigs

 

To raise and temporarily support pile while it is being driven. To support pile hammer

Hammer  To provide the impacts necessary to drive the pile.  Type of hammers:  Drop hammer  Steam, pneumatic and hydraulic hammers  Diesel hammers  Vibratory hammers  appurtenances

Predrilling, Jetting & Spudding



Function:  To reduce the potential for damage during driving process.  To increase the contractor s production rate. Predrilling:  Drilling a vertical hole and driving the pile into the hole  Reduce the heave and lateral soil movement.

Jetting  Pumping high pressure water through a pipe to a nozzle located at the pile tip.  Useful in sandy and gravelly soils.  Most often used to quickly penetrate through sandy clay

Spudding


Spudding is another method used to assist penetration. Driving hard metal points into the ground, then removing them and driving pile into resulting hole. Most used to punch through thin layers of hard rock.

Pile Arrangement and Geometries

 

Pile group: usually consist of 3 or more pile. Pile group are used instead of single pile because:  A single pile does not have enough capacity  Piles are located with low degree of precision and can easily be 150mm or more from the desired location.

 

Pile by grouping more safety. Multiple piles provide redundancy and can continue to support the structure even if one pile is defective.

Pile Cap In the British Standard Code of Practice BS 8004, a pile cap is defined as a concrete block cast on the head of a pile, or a group of piles, to transmit the load from the structure to the pile or group of piles. Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the structures to a pile / pile group, then the load further transfers to from soil External pressures on a pile are likely to be greatest near the ground surface. Ground stability increases with depth and pressure. The top of the pile therefore, is more vulnerable to movement and stress than the base of the pile. Pile caps are thus incorporated in order to tie the pile heads together so that individual pile movement and settlement is greatly reduced. Thus stability of the pile group is greatly increased.

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than one pile can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural elements bear on the grade beams while heavier elements bear directly on the pile cap.

Pile cap


Function:
  

To distribute the structural loads to the piles. To tie the piles together so they can act as a unit. To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall stability of the group To provide the necessary combined resistance to stresses set up by the superstructure and/or ground movement

Drilled Shaft


To apply drilled shaft, a slender cylinders hole should be drill into the ground, reinforcing steel cage are inserted to the hole, then filling the hole with concrete.

Drilled Shaft Foundations

 

Drilled shafts, also known as, cast-in-drilled hole (CIDH) piles, caissons, drilled piers or bored piles are used for deep foundation solutions to high axial and / or lateral loads challenges throughout the world. Excavation of a cylindrical borehole into which reinforcing steel and fluid concrete is cast or placed, forms the drilled shaft foundation elements. Drilled shafts can provide cost effective, high capacity deep foundation systems in a variety of subsurface conditions with differing geometries.

Also known as:

    

Piers or drilled pier Bored pile Cast-in-place pile Caisson or drilled caisson Cast-in-drilled-hole (CIDH) foundation

The difference between piles and drilled shafts:  Piles: prefabricated members driven into the ground.  Drilled shafts: cast-in-place.

Drilled Shaft Construction in Competent Soils using Dry Method: (a) Placing The Reinforcing Steel Cage; and (b) Finishing The Concrete Placement (Reese and ONeill, 1988)

Advantages & Disadvantages

No
1 2 3

Advantages
Less costs of mobilizing and demobilizing a drill rig Less noise and vibration Soils excavated can be observed and classified during drilling

Disadvantages
Dependent on contractor's skills Lower unit end bearing capacity Expensive for full-scale load test

4 5

Size of shafts can easily be changed during const. Can penetrate soils with cobbles, boulders and many types of bedrock

Possible to support each column with one large shaft (no pile cap)

Drilled Equipments


Drilling Rigs


Truck-mounted drilling rig



For usual shaft, d=500 H=6.24m

1200mm and

 

Specialized rigs A-Shaped Frame Rigs

Drilling Tools
 The helix-shaped flight auger (most common

used) Effective in most sols and soft rocks  Augers with hardened teeth and pilot stingers Effective in hardpan or moderately hard rock  Spiral-shaped rooting tools Help loosen cobbles and boulders

 Bucket augers To collect cuttings in a cylindrical bucket Used in running sands  Belling buckets To enlarge the bottom of the shaft (bells or under

reams)  Core barrels To cut a circular slot,creating a removable core Used in hard rock  Multi-roller percussion bits To cut through hard rock  Cleanout buckets To remove final cuttings from hole

Drilled Techniques


Drilling in Firm Soils

 

Using dry method (open-hole method) Most common used: simple, economy and good reability

Steps:


 

Holes usually advance using conventional flight auger Holes remain open without any special support Check the open hole for cleanliness and alignment Insert steel reinforcing cage Pour the concrete

Drilling in Caving (Cave-in) or Squeezing Soils



Caving:  The side of a hole which is collapse before or during concrete placement.  Usually in clean sands below the groundwater table.

Squeezing:


The sides of hole bulging inward during or after drilling Usually in soft clays and silts or highly organic soils. Using casing Drilling fluid (slurry method) using bentonite clay or attapulgite clay.

Most common techniques:

 

Caissons


Prefabricated hollow box or cylinder that is sunk permanently into the ground to some desired depth then will filled with concrete. Can be floated to the job site and sunk into place. Often used in bridge piers construction, foundation beneath rivers or other bodies of water.

Types of Caissons
  

Open Caissons Box Caissons Compressed air caissons or Pneumatic Caissons Monoliths

Open Caissons


 

Caissons that is open at both top and bottom. Suitable for foundations in waterways where the sub-stratum is soft clay or silt and easily excavated by grab or air lift. Made of steel or reinforced concrete. Have pointed edges at the bottom to facilitate penetration into the ground.

Steps:


The site of the proposed foundation is dredged. The caisson is floated into place and sunk into the soils. As it descends, the soil inside is remove and hauled out of the top and the water that accumulates inside is pumped out. Fill it with the concrete.

Box Caissons


Prefabricated boxes, usually in concrete, with sides and a bottom, which are set down on a prepared base. The box is then filled with concrete to form a massive foundation for a pier or similar structure. The box caissons may be concreted by one of three methods:

  

Tremie pipe Pump Bottom-opening skip Box caissons must be anchored to prevent floatation before the concrete fill has been placed.

Compressed air caissons



Suitable for sinking foundations in troublesome ground ground containing obstacles that require moving by hand. The caissons is positioned and sunk then lowered into the soil as the soil is removed from within it.

Men excavate the soil by hand with aid of pneumatic tools, and load the spoil into skips for hoisting up through the muck-lock. The advantages include dry working conditions and accurate levelling and testing of the foundation bed, together with ideal conditions for the placing of concrete.

Monoliths Caissons


Are similar to open caissons with kentledge but differ in that they are much heavier. The monolith consists of reinforced concrete walls of substantial thickness to provide sufficient weight to prevent overturning.

Franki Piles


Other names:
   

Pressure-injected footing (PIF) Bulb pile Expanded base pile Compacted concrete pile

Use cast-in-place concrete that is rammed into the soil using a drop hammer.

Steps:


Driving the steel-drive tube (d=300 600mm)



Top driving method  Install a temporary bottom plate on the drive tube and then drive to the required depth using pile hammer.

Bottom driving method



Place a plug of low-slump concrete in the bottom of the tube and pack it in using drop hammer. Place small charges of concrete inside the tube. Drive them into ground with repeated blows of drop hammer (1400 4500 kg), height of drop 6m.

Forming the base

 

Building the shaft  Compacted shaft  Raise the drive tube in increments while simultaneously driving in additional charges of concrete.

Cased shaft  Insert a corrugated steel shell into the drive tube, place and compact a zero slump concrete plug and withdraw the tube.  Fill the shell with conventional concrete.

Auger-cast Piles


An auger-cast piles are constructed by drilling a slender hole into the ground using a hollow-stem auger. After the drilling works completed, concrete are placed into the hole. The picture below shows the continuous flight auger piles being constructed.

Continuous Flight Auger Piles

Factors influence the design and size of foundation Loads Dead Load Imposed Load Soil Condition Load Bearing Capacity Water Table Level Chemical Subtances Material Wind Load Technology Design Expectise Competence Workers Cost Plant Worker