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MDS is relatively more complicated scaling device, but with this sort of scaling one can scale objects, individuals or both with a minimum of information MDS allows a researcher to measure an item in more than one dimension at a time MDS is a class of procedures for representing perceptions and preferences of respondents spatially by means of a visual display Perceived or psychological relationships among stimuli are represented as geometric relationships among points in a multidimensional space These geometric representations are often called spatial maps The axes of the spatial map are assumed to denote the psychological bases or underlying dimensions respondents use to form perceptions and preferences for stimuli
The MDS analysis will reveal the most salient attributes which happen to be the primary determinants for making a specific decision A/C to Beri (1999), MDS is a data reduction technique, the primary purpose of which is to uncover the 'hidden structure' of a set of data. It enables the researcher to represent the proximities between objects spatially as in a map The term 'proximities' means any set of numbers that express the amount of similarity or difference between pairs of objects The term 'objects' refers to things or events The proximity data can come from similarity judgments, identification confusion matrices, grouping data, same-different errors or any other measure of pair wise similarity
1954 Guttman facet theory, extra information (external variables)is available on the objects according to the facete design by which the objects are generated
1986-1998 Meulman: integration of (Non linear) multivariate analysis and MDS Much emphasis on the representation of objects less on the variables Findings by MDS through stress as a dimension reduction technique Including a wide variety of MVA techniques - (Non linear) PCA - Multiple Correspondence Analysis - Correspondence analysis -Generalized Canonical Correlation Analysis -Discriminant Analysis 1999 Heiser, Meulman, Busing: PRPXSCAL (i.e.SMACOF) in SPSS (PASW) 2009: De Leeuw& Mair SMACOF in R
What is MDS?
Table of travel times by train in french cities
It contains the flying mileages between 10 American cities. The cities are the "objects." and the mileages are the "similarities. An MDS of these data gives the picture in Fig. 1, a map of the relative locations of these 10 cities in the United States. This map has 10 points, one for each of the 10 cities. Cities that are similar (have short flying mileages) are represented by points that are close together, and cities that are dissimilar (have large mileages) by points far apart.
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a method that represents measurements of similarity or dissimilarity among pairs of objects as distance between points of a low dimensional space Who uses MDS? -Psychology -Medicine -Sociology -Chemistry -Archaeology -Net work analysis -Biology -Economics etc.
Similarities and dissimilarities Large similarity approximated by small distance in MDS The similarity between stimuli is inversely related to the distances of the corresponding points in the multidimensional space Large dissimilarity approximated by large distance in MDS General term-proximity
The Minkowski distance metric A Euclidian distance metric The city-block distance metric Euclidian distance metric is often used because of mathematical convenience in MDS procedures MDS is used when all the variables (whether metric or non-metric) in a study are to be analyzed simultaneously and all such variables happen to be independent
Euclidean distance to model dissimilarity. That is, the distance dij between points i and j is defined as Where xi Specifies the position (coordinate) of point i on dimension
Similarity ratings is shown for 10 faces is to reveal some of the perceptual dimensions that subjects might have used when generating similarity judgments for these faces The two dimensional scaling solution is shown for the 10 faces. After visual inspection, the configuration can be interpreted as the perceptual dimensions of age and adiposity.
Select an MDS Procedure Decide on the Number of Dimensions Label the Dimensions and Interpret the Configuration
While attempting to construct a space containing m points such that m(m -1)/2 interpoint distances reflect the input data The metric (quantitative) approach to MDS treats the input data as interval scale data and solves applying statistical methods for the additive constant which minimizes the dimensionality of the solution space The non-metric (qualitative) approach first gathers the non-metric similarities by asking respondents to rank order all possible pairs that can be obtained from a set of objects. Such non-metric data is then transformed into some arbitrary metric space and then the solution is obtained by reducing the dimensionality After this sort of mapping is performed, the dimensions are usually interpreted and labelled by the researcher
Perceptions
Preferences
Aqua-Fresh Aqua-Fresh Crest Colgate Aim Gleem Macleans Ultra Brite Close-Up Pepsodent Dentagard 5 6 4 2 3 2 2 2 1
Crest
Colgate
Aim
Gleem
Macleans
Ultra Brite
Close-Up
Pepsodent Dentagard
7 6 3 3 2 2 2 2
6 4 4 2 2 2 4
5 4 3 2 2 2
5 5 6 6 4
5 5 6 3
6 7 3
6 4
Whitens teeth ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Prevents tooth Does not prevent decay ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ tooth decay . . . . Pleasant Unpleasant tasting ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ tasting
If attribute ratings are obtained, a similarity measure (such as Euclidean distance) is derived for each pair of brands.
Conducting Multi dimensional Scaling Obtain Input Data Direct vs. Derived Approaches
The direct approach has the following advantages and disadvantages: The researcher does not have to identify a set of salient attributes. The disadvantages are that the criteria are influenced by the brands or stimuli being evaluated. Furthermore, it may be difficult to label the dimensions of the spatial map.
Conducting Multidimensional Scaling Obtain Input Data Direct vs. Derived Approaches
The attribute-based approach has the following advantages and disadvantages: It is easy to identify respondents with homogeneous perceptions. The respondents can be clustered based on the attribute ratings. It is also easier to label the dimensions. A disadvantage is that the researcher must identify all the salient attributes, a difficult task. The spatial map obtained depends upon the attributes identified. It may be best to use both these approaches in a complementary way. Direct similarity judgments may be used for obtaining the spatial map, and attribute ratings may be used as an aid to interpreting the dimensions of the perceptual map.
Decide the no. of Dimensions Scree test (Elbow test) An important issue in MDS is choosing the number of dimensions
for the scaling solution. A configuration with a high number of dimensions achieves very low stress values but cannot easily be comprehended by the human eye, and is opt to be determined more by noise than by the essential structure in the data. On the other hand, a solution with too few dimensions might not reveal enough of the structure in the data Stress (or other lack of fit measure) is plotted against the dimensionality. stress decreases smoothly with increasing dimensionality making the choice of appropriate dimensionality very difficult with this method In Figure 1b, the filled circles shows the scree plot for the face similarity dataset
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MDS Applications
Exploratory data analysis; by placing objects as points in a low dimensional space The observed complexity in the original data matrix can often be reduced while preserving the essential information in the data Consumers generally prefer a particular brand of a product not on the basis of one attribute but on a number of attributes. The need for multidimensional scaling arises to understand such situations It helps in the identification of attributes on the basis of which consumers perceive or evaluate products or brands. It enables the positioning of different products or brands on the basis of these attributes. It helps to generate a perceptual map indicating location of the brands on the basis of attributes
Political party comparison website for Dutch parliament elections 2010 asks to rate 30 political statements e.g. 1. the government needs to cut the budget by billions . The budget deficit should at the latest in 2015 Agree Don t Know Dis agree 2. those with high income should pay more taxes Agree Don t know Dis agree 11 Political parties also rated these 30 items What is the political land cape in the Dutch elections of 2010? Do IMDS on the distance between the 11 parties in 30 dimensional space Data on spatial map reducing the data about 11 parties in two dimensions