Prenatal Development:

Conception to Birth

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 Thinking About
Development
Learning Objectives
– What are the fundamental issues of development
that scholars have addressed throughout history?
– What are the basic forces in the biopsychosocial
framework? How does the timing of these forces
make a difference in their impact?

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 Thinking About
Development
Three Recurring Issues in Human
Development
Nature vs. Nurture
– What is the role of heredity and how does it
compare with the role of environment on human
development?
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
– Does development consist of a smooth
progression (continuity), or is it a series of abrupt
shifts (discontinuity)?

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 Thinking About
Development
Three Issues (cont.)
Universal vs. Context-Specific Development
– Are differences in development across cultures
simply variations on a universal developmental
process? OR:
– Does development take different paths dependent
upon environmental context?

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 Nature and Nurture: The
Enduring Developmental
Issue
Environment
– the influence of experience to which a child is
exposed
Heredity
– those influences based on genetic makeup of an
individual that affect growth and development
throughout life
Nature-Nurture Issue
– the issue of the degree to which environment and
heredity influence behavior

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 Thinking About
Development
Basic Forces in Human Development:
The Biopsychosocial Framework
Biological Forces:
– Genetic and health-related factors
Psychological Forces:
– Perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors
Sociocultural Forces:
– Interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors
Life-Cycle Forces:
– Same events many people experience, affecting people of
different ages differently
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 Thinking about
Development
The Biopsychosocial Framework
None of these forces alone adequately
explain the process of development.
Human development is the combined effects
of Biological, Psychological, Sociocultural,
and Life-Cycle forces.
Each of these factors impact the others.

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Biological Foundations:
Heredity, Prenatal
Development, & Birth

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 In the Beginning

Learning Objectives
– What are chromosomes and genes? How do they
carry hereditary information from one generation
to the next?
– What are common problems involving
chromosomes and what are their consequences?
– How is children’s heredity influenced by the
environment in which they grow up?

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 In the Beginning

Mechanisms of Heredity
Human eggs contain 23 chromosomes
selected from the mother’s 46. One
chromosome is selected from each of the 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Human sperm contain 23 chromosomes
selected from the father’s 46. One
chromosome is selected from each of the 23
pairs.
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 In the Beginning
Conception
The human egg and sperm unite, resulting in a
zygote which contains a complete set of 46
chromosomes.
The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes.
The 23 pair determines the gender of the child and
are called the sex chromosomes.
The 46 chromosomes contain around 30,000 genes.

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 In the Beginning

The 23rd Pair of Chromosomes

Males carry XY chromosomes. X from
mother and Y from father.
Females carry XX chromosomes. X from
mother and X from father.

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 In the Beginning

Inheritance
The complete set of inherited traits are called
the child’s genotype.
How the traits are expressed is called the
child’s phenotype and is the combined effects
of genotype and environmental influences.

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 In the Beginning
Alleles
The child’s characteristics are determined by
the interaction of genes on the two
chromosomes in a pair.
Each chromosome of a pair contains one
parent’s contribution to a specific trait.
When the genes are the same they are called
homozygous. When different, they are called
heterozygous.

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 In the Beginning

Homozygous Alleles
When alleles are the same, both of the
child’s parents have contributed similar genes
for a trait.

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 In the Beginning

Heterozygous Alleles
The parents have contributed different
versions of the trait.
The phenotype of the child is determined by
which version of the trait is more dominant.
When one allele is not clearly dominant over
the other, incomplete dominance results.

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 In the Beginning

Behavioral Genetics
The study of the inheritance of behavioral and
psychological traits.

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 In the Beginning

Polygenetic Inheritance
When many genes affect the phenotype of a
trait.
Many psychological and behavioral
characteristics are polygenetic and are
impossible to trace to a single gene.

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 In the Beginning

Twins
Dizygotic (fraternal) twins come from two
different eggs fertilized by two different
sperm.
Monozygotic (identical) twins come from the
union of one egg and one sperm that splits in
two, soon after conception.

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 In the Beginning

What Twins Can Teach Us

Fraternal twins, while they share much of the
same experience and environment, have no
more genetic similarity than other siblings.
Identical twins share much of the same
experience but are also genetically identical.

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 In the Beginning

Twins and Adoption Studies

Twin studies emphasize the importance of
heredity in development.
Studying the similarity of adopted children to
their adoptive parents helps to demonstrate
the role of experience.

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 In the Beginning

Genetic Disorders
Inherited Disorders involve dominant or
recessive alleles for conditions such as
Sickle-Cell Disease, PKU, and Huntington’s
Disease.
Extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes
result in abnormalities of development (e.g.
Down Syndrome, Turner’s Syndrome, &
Klinefelter’s Syndrome).
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 In the Beginning

Heredity is Not Destiny

Genes probably do not directly cause
behavior. Instead they set conditions such as
physiology that affect abilities and choices.
Reaction Range refers to the fact that
phenotype is affected by environment factors
to produce phenotype.

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 In the Beginning
Three Types of Relationships Between Genetics and
Environment
In Passive Gene-Environment Relation, parents
contribute both genetics and environmental
conditions to their children.
In Evocative Gene-Environment Relation, genotypes
tend to evoke reactions or responses from the
environment.
An Active Gene-Environment Relation results in
individuals who actively seek environments related to
their genetic makeup (Niche-Picking).

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 From Conception to
Birth
Learning Objectives
What happens to a fertilized egg in the first
two weeks after conception?
When do body structures and internal organs
emerge in prenatal development?
When do body systems begin to function well
enough to support life?

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 From Conception to
Birth
Periods of Prenatal Development
Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1-2)
– After fertilization, the zygote travels down the
fallopian tube and is implanted in the uterine wall.
Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3-8)
– Body structures, internal organs, and the three
layers of the embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm, &
endoderm) develop.
– The amniotic sac fills with fluid and the umbilical
cord connects the embryo to the placenta.

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 From Conception to
Birth
Periods of Prenatal Development (cont.)
Period of the Fetus (Week 9-Birth)
– Week 9- Differentiation of the ovaries and testes.
– Week 12- Circulatory system begins to function.
– Week 16- Movement felt by mother.
– Week 32- Age of viability.

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 Three Stages of
Development
:
– Ovulation to implantation: the
ovum travels down the fallopian
tube, is fertilized by a sperm, and
is then implanted within the wall of
the uterus
– Embryonic period: implantation to
8 weeks
– Fetal stage: 8 weeks to birth

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One month
An embryo consisting of
two layers of cells from
which all the organs and body
parts will develop.

• Embryo is 1/4 inch in length

• Heart, digestive system,
backbone and spinal cord
begin to form
• Placenta (sometimes called
"afterbirth") begins to develop
• The single fertilized egg is
now 10,000 times larger than
size at conception
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Two MonthS
Embryo is now about the size of a
kidney bean and is constantly
moving.

•Enbryo is 1-1/8 inches long

•Heart is functioning
•Eyes, nose, lips, tongue, ears and
teeth are forming
•Penis begins to appear in boys
•Embryo is moving, although the
mother can not yet feel movement

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Three monthS
Fetus’ tiny, unique fingerprints are now
in place.

• Fetus is 2 1/2 to 3 inches long

• Weight is about 1/2 to 1 ounce
• Nails start to develop and earlobes are
formed
• Arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet and toes
are fully formed
• Eyes are almost fully developed
•Fetus has developed most of his/her
organs and tissues
•Fetus’ heart rate can be heard at 10
weeks with a special instrument called a
Doppler
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FOUR MONTHS
Fetus’ skeleton is starting to harden from
rubbery cartilage to bone.

•Fetus is 6 1/2 to 7 inches long

•Weight is about 6 to 7 ounces
•Fetus is developing reflexes, such as sucking
and swallowing and may begin sucking his/her
thumb
•Fingers and toes are well defined
•Sex is identifiable
•Skin is bright pink, transparent and covered
with soft, downy hair
•Although recognizably human in appearance,
the baby would not be able to survive outside the
mother's body

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FIVE MONTHS
Eyebrows and eyelids are now in place.
Baby would now be more than 10 inches
long if you stretched out her legs.

•Fetus is 8 to 10 inches long

•Weight is about 1 pound
•Hair begins to grow on baby's head
•Mother begins to feel fetal movement
•Internal organs are maturing
•Eyebrows, eyelids and eyelashes appear

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SIX MONTHS

Fetus’ wrinkled skin is starting to

smooth out as he puts on baby fat.

•Fetus is 11 to 14 inches long

•Weight is about 1 3/4 to 2 pounds
•Eyelids begin to part and eyes
open sometimes for short periods
of time
•Skin is covered with protective
coating called vernix
•Baby is able to hiccup

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SEVEN MONTHS
Fetus can open and close eyes and
follow a light.

•Fetus is 14 to 16 inches long

•Weight is about 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 pounds
•Taste buds have developed
•Fat layers are forming
•Organs are maturing
•Skin is still wrinkled and red
•If born at this time, baby will be
considered a premature baby and require
special care

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EIGHT MONTHS
Fetus’ layers of fat are filling him out,
making him rounder, and his lungs are well
developed.

•Fetus is 16 1/2 to 18 inches long

•Weight is about 4 to 6 pounds
•Overall growth is rapid this month
•Tremendous brain growth occurs at this
time
•Most body organs are now developed with
the exception of the lungs
•Movements or "kicks" are strong enough to
be visible from the outside
•Kidneys are mature
•Skin is less wrinkled Table of Contents Exit
NINE MONTHS
Babies vary widely in size at this
stage

•Baby is 19 to 20 inches long

•Weight is about 7 to 7 1/2 pounds
•The lungs are mature
•Baby is now fully developed and
can survive outside the mother's
body
•Skin is pink and smooth
•Baby settles down lower in the
abdomen in preparation for birth and
may seem less active

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 Time Development
1st -2nd weeks one week old zygote are called blastocyst. During the second week, the blastocyst
becomes firmly implanted in the wall of the uterus. From its outer layer of cells, the
placenta, an umbilical cord, and the amniotic sac begin to develop. The inner cell layer
develops into the embryo itself.

3rd week neural induction: a chemical signal is sent from the mesoderm to the ectoderm thus
signalling the onset of nervous system development. Developing brain’s electrical
activity helps to shape the structure of the brain.

4th week the heart begins to beat- the embryo’s first movement

5th week eyes and ears begin to emerge, body buds give clear evidence of becoming arms and
legs, and the head area is the largest part of the rapidly growing embryo.

6th -7th weeks fingers begin to appear on the hands, the outline of toes is seen, and the beginnings of
the spinal cord are visible. In the germinal period, the number and differentiation of
cells rapidly increase; in the embryonic period, the organs are formed, a process called
organogenesis

8th week 95 percent of the body parts are formed and general body movement are detected.
During these weeks embryonic tissues is particularly sensitive to any foreign agents
during differentiation, especially beginning at the third or fourth week of the
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 Time Development

3rd month the fetus grows rapidly both in height and weight. The sex organs
appear during the third month, and it is possible to determine the
baby’s sex. Visible sexual differentiation begins, and the nervous
system continues to increase in size and complexity.
4th - 5th months The fetus now swallows, digests, discharges urine. The fetus is now
active- sucking, turning its head, and pushing with hands and feet-
and the mother is acutely aware of the life within her. The fetus
produces specialized cells: red blood cells to transport oxygen and
white blood cells to combat disease
6th – 7th months Rapid growth continues in the sixth month with the fetus gaining
another 2 inches and 1 pound, but slows during the seventh month.
Viability, the ability to survive if born, is attained. After six months
very few new nerve and muscle cells appear, since at birth the
nervous system must be fully functioning to ensure automatic
breathing.
8th – 9th months organ development prepares the fetus for the shock of leaving the
sheltered uterine world. The senses are ready to function; some, in
fact, are already functioning.
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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
Learning Objectives
How is prenatal development influenced by a
pregnant woman’s age, her nutrition, and the stress
she experiences while pregnant?
How do diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards
sometimes affect prenatal development?
What are some general principles affecting the ways
prenatal development can be harmed?
How can prenatal development be monitored? Can
abnormal prenatal development be corrected?

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 Genetic Influences on
the Fetus
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
• cannot produce a required enzyme

Sickle-cell anemia
• abnormal shape of red blood cells

Tay-Sachs disease
• body’s inability to break down fat

Down’s Syndrome
• extra chromosome

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 Prenatal Environmental
Influences
Mother’s nutrition and emotional state
Illness of mother
Mother’s use of drugs
Birth complications

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 Genetic Disorders

Down syndrome  is a genetic disorder that is not aborted
Individuals usually have an extra 21st chromosome. 
Down syndrome individuals have a distinctive appearance 
and are mentally retarded.
Disorders of the sex chromosomes  are more common 
because these chromosomes contain much less genetic 
material.  

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 Single gene­pair inheritance

dominant genes­­ if even one is inherited will produce the 
effect (Gregor Mendel) 
recessive genes­­ need one from both parents to produce 
effect
sickle­cell disease­­ recessive disorder alters shape of 
blood cell
carriers—do not have trait but can transmit to children 
via recessive gene

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 Heredity is Not Destiny:  Genes and 
Environment

PKU, an inherited disorder­­ phenylalanine 
accumulates in the body, damaging the nervous 
system.  
Mental retardation can be avoided with a diet 
that is low in phenylalanine.  
PKU demonstrates the concept of reaction 
range 
–  the outcome of heredity depends upon the 
environment in which development occurs.

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 “incomplete dominance”

­­ neither gene in pair is completely dominant or recessive 
(e.g., sickle­cell trait); 
one is mostly dominant but not completely 
(e.g. in times when lack oxygen/ vigorous exercise, then 
less dominate gene may be expressed ) 

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 Teratogens
Teratogens are environmental substances
that can cause birth defects in the
developing fetus
– Maternal alcohol use leads to fetal alcohol
syndrome (facial defects, low IQ, neurobehavioral
defects)
– Nicotine exposure leads to premature births, low
birth weights, fetal deaths, cognitive problems,
behavioral abnormalities

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
Teratogens
Drugs
– Alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, narcotics, marijuana, &
nicotine.
– May cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, cognitive
deficits, low birth weight, slowed growth, and other
effects.

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
Teratogens: Diseases
AIDS, Cytomegalovirus, Genital Herpes,
Rubella (German Measles), Syphilis.
Effects include neurological disorders,
deafness, blindness, mental disability,
damage to bones, eyes, ears, or heart.

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
Teratogens: Environmental Hazards
Lead, Mercury, PCBs, X-Rays.
Effects may include mental disability, retarded
growth, cerebral palsy, impaired memory and
verbal skill, retarded growth, and leukemia.

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development
The effect of the teratogen depends upon the
genotype of the organism (e.g., Thalidomide).
The impact of teratogens changes over the course of
prenatal development.
Each teratogen affects a specific aspect of prenatal
development.
The impact of teratogens depends on the dosage.
Damage from teratogens is not always evident at
birth.
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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
General Risk Factors
Nutrition
– Inadequate maternal nutrition may result in
premature birth and low birth weight.
– Lack of folic acid may increase risk of spina bifida.
Stress
– Studies show extreme maternal stress is
associated with low birth weight and premature
births.

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
General Risk Factors (cont.)
Mother’s Age
– Older mothers are more likely to have difficulty
getting pregnant, miscarriages, and stillbirths.
– Nearly 50% of pregnancies among women in their
40’s and 50’s result in miscarriage.

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment
Genetic Counseling
– Helps to assess the chances of inherited disorders.
Prenatal Diagnosis
– Ultrasound is the use of soundwaves to produce a picture of
the fetus.
– Amniocentesis allows the taking of a sample of the amniotic
fluid.
– Chorionic Villus Sampling is taken from the placenta and can
be done earlier than amniocentesis.

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 Influences on Prenatal
Development
Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment (cont.)
Fetal Medicine
– Administering medicine to the fetus.
– Fetal Surgery to correct spina bifida and
circulatory problems.
– Genetic Engineering involves replacing defective
genes with synthetic normal genes.

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 Labor and Delivery

Learning Objectives
What are the different phases of labor and
delivery?
What are “natural” ways of coping with the
pain of childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?
What are some complications that can occur
during birth?

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 Labor and Delivery
Stages of Labor
Stage 1 lasts 12-24 hours for the first birth
and includes contractions and the
enlargement of the cervix to approximately 10
centimeters.
Stage 2 includes the actual birth of the baby
and lasts about an hour.
Stage 3 lasts a few minutes and involves
expelling of the placenta.

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 Labor and Delivery

Approaches to Childbirth
Childbirth Classes
– Explains what happens during pregnancy and
delivery.
– Teaches techniques to manage the pain of
childbirth. The emphasis is on natural methods,
relaxation, and coaching.
– Studies show that mothers who attend childbirth
classes typically use less medication.

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 Labor and Delivery

Approaches to Childbirth
Birthing Alternatives
– Home Births
• Less Expensive
• Parents have more control over the conditions
• Birth problems are no more common at home than at the
hospital when pregnancy has been problem-free.
– Birthing Centers
• More home-like than hospitals, but in a clinic setting
independent of hospitals.

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 Labor and Delivery: Birth
Complications
Hypoxia, or inadequate Babies weighing less
blood and oxygen to than 5.5 pounds have
baby. low birth weight.
Complications may Babies weighing less
result in cesarean than 3.3 pounds have
section (C-section) very low birth weight.
Births before the 36th Below 2.2 pounds is
week are called called extremely low
premature or preterm. birth weight.

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 Labor and Delivery
Infant Mortality
Infant Mortality is the number of infants out of 1,000
births that die before the age of 1 year.
U.S. mortality rate is about 1%, or 9 of 1000.
15 industrialized nations have lower infant mortality
than U.S.
Possible factors include low birth weight resulting
from a lack of free or inexpensive prenatal care and
fewer paid leaves of absence for pregnant women.

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