Lifes Chemical Basis

Spring 2012

CoalCoal-fired Georgia plants lead nation in greenhouse gas emissions, EPA data show

The Augusta Chronicle By Rob Pavey Staff Writer Thursday, Jan. 12, 2012
Well discuss the physical, chemical, and economic basis of this article while we study unit 1.

The EPAs new compilation of heat-trapping gases shows that U.S. power plants are responsible for about 72 percent of the pollution blamed for global warming, with Southern Companys Plant Scherer in Juliette, Ga., at the top of the list that includes about 6,700 of the nations industrial pollution sources.

Impacts, Issues: What Are You Worth

  

Each of us is a collection of elements Elements are fundamental substances that consist of only one kind of atom An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still retains the elements properties

Impacts, Issues: What Are You Worth



Proportions of the most common elements in a human body, Earths crust, and sewater

Human Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur 61.0% 23.0 10.0 2.6 1.4 1.1 0.2 0.2

Earths Crust Oxygen Silicon Aluminum Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium 46.0% 27.0 8.2 6.3 5.0 2.9 2.3 1.5

Seawater Oxygen Hydrogen Chlorine Sodium Magnesium Sulfur Calcium Potassium 85.7% 10.8 2.0 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.04 0.03

Fig. 2-1b, p.19

Elements
 Fundamental  Cant

forms of matter

be broken apart by normal means occur naturally on Earth

 92

Most Common Elements in Living Organisms

Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen

Fig. 2-3, p.20

What Are Atoms?

 Smallest

particles that retain properties of an element up of subatomic particles:

Protons (+) Electrons (-) (Neutrons (no charge)

 Made
  

Representing the Hydrogen Atom

electron proton

electron

Shell model

Ball model

Electron density cloud

Fig. 2-2, p.20

Representing the Hydrogen Atom

Fig. 2-2a, p.20

electron

proton

Representing the Hydrogen Atom

electron
Fig. 2-2a, p.20

Representing the Hydrogen Atom

Fig. 2-2c, p.20

Atomic Number
 Number

of protons  All atoms of an element have the same atomic number  Atomic number of hydrogen = 1  Atomic number of carbon = 6

Mass Number
Number of protons + Number of neutrons

Isotopes vary in mass number

Isotopes
 Atoms

of an element with different numbers of neutrons (different mass numbers)  Carbon 12 has 6 protons, 6 neutrons  Carbon 14 has 6 protons, 8 neutrons

Radioisotopes
 Have

an unstable nucleus that emits energy and particles  Radioactive decay transforms radioisotope into a different element  Decay occurs at a fixed rate

Nuclear Fission
160 62 146 57 235 92

Sm  Zn  4 n  energy La  Br  3 n  energy Ba  Kr  3 n  energy Cs  Rb  2 n  energy Xe  Sr  2 n  energy

16

72 30

1 0

87 35

1 0

U np

1 0

? UAp
236 92

140 56 144 55 144 54

93 36

1 0

90 37

1 0

90 38

1 0

Nuclear Fission Reactors

  
1.

Electricity can be generated from steam heated by nuclear fission reactions. Greatest danger of nuclear reactors is core meltdown. meltdown. There have been three very serious nuclear reactor accidents:
Three Mile Island in PA. 2. Chernobyl in the Ukraine. 3. Fukushima-Daichi in Japan Fukushima17

Nuclear Chain Reaction, the Video

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0v8i4v1

mieU

CaesiumCaesium-137
 By

product of the nuclear fission reactions  The 2011 Fukushima-Daichi nuclear Fukushimaaccident released Cs-137 Cs Cs-137 produces both gamma and beta Csradiation  Potential cause of cancer  levels of contaminants detected (in the US) are far below the standards observed by EPA and other U.S. agencies.

Radiation Detected In Drinking Water In 13 More US Cities, Cesium-137 In Vermont Milk Cesium-

 Forbes, Forbes,

4/09/2011 @ 8:15AM

CsCs-137 Map
 Go

to yahoo image search

Radioisotopes as Tracers
 Tracer

is substance with a radioisotope attached to it  Emissions from the tracer can be detected with special devices  Following movement of tracers is useful in many areas of biology

Radioisotopes in Medicine
 Positron-Emission Positron-

Tomography (PET) uses radioisotopes to form images of body tissues



 

Patient is injected with tracer and put through a PET scanner Body cells absorb tracer at different rates Scanner detects radiation caused by energy from decay of the radioisotope, and radiation then forms an image Image can reveal variations and abnormalities in metabolic activity

Radioisotopes in Medicine

Fig. 2-4a, p.21

Radioisotopes in Medicine

detector ring inside pet scanner

Portion of the patients body being scanned

Fig. 2-4b, p.21

The ring intercepts emissions from the labeled molecules

Fig. 2-4c, p.21

Fig. 2-4d, p.21

Other Uses of Radioisotopes

 Drive

artificial pacemakers therapy

 Radiation

Emissions from some radioisotopes can destroy cells. Some radioisotopes are used to kill small cancers.

What Determines Whether Atoms Will Interact?

The number and arrangement of their electrons

Electrons
 Carry

a negative charge  Repel one another  Are attracted to protons in the nucleus  Move in orbitals - volumes of space that surround the nucleus

Electron Orbitals
 Orbitals

can hold up to two electrons  Atoms differ in the number of occupied orbitals  Orbitals closest to nucleus are lower energy and are filled first

p.22

Orbitals
 From

youtube: youtube:  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Khttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjNgq16jEY

Shell Model


First shell


Lowest energy Holds 1 orbital with up to 2 electrons

SODIUM 11p+ , 11e-

CHLORINE 17p+ , 17e-

CARBON 6p+ , 6e-

Second shell


OXYGEN 8p+ , 8e-

4 orbitals hold up to 8 electrons

HYDROGEN 1p+ , 1e-

HELIUM 2p+ , 2e-

electron SODIUM 11p+ , 11eCHLORINE 17p+ , 17eproton neutron

CARBON 6p+ , 6e-

OXYGEN 8p+ , 8e-

NEON 10p+ , 10e-

HYDROGEN 1p+ , 1e-

HELIUM 2p+ , 2eFig. 2-6, p.23

Probability Model


Each model is a 3-dimensional approximation of an electron orbital

Fig. 2-5, p.22

Electron arrangements in atoms

Electron Vacancies
 Unfilled

shells make atoms likely

to react  Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen all have vacancies in their outer shells

Chemical Bonds, Molecules, & Compounds

 Bond

is union between electron structures of atoms  Atoms bond to form molecules  Molecules may contain atoms of only one element - O2  Molecules of compounds contain more than one element - H2O

Chemical Bookkeeping
 Use

symbols for elements when writing formulas for glucose is C6H12O6

6 carbons 12 hydrogens 6 oxygens

 Formula


Chemical Bookkeeping
 Chemical

equation shows reaction Reactants ---> Products --->  Equation for photosynthesis:
REACTANTS
12H2O
WATER

PRODUCTS
sunlight energy 6O2
OXYGEN

6CO2
CARBON DIOXIDE

C6H12O6
GLUCOSE

6H2O
WATER

24 hydrogens 6 carbons 12 oxygens 12 oxygens

12 oxygens

6 carbons 12 hydrogens 12 hydrogens 6 oxygens 6 oxygens

Chemical bookkeeping

Important Bonds in Biological Molecules

 Ionic

Bonds  Covalent Bonds  Hydrogen Bonds

Ion Formation
 Atom

has equal number of electrons and protons - no net charge loses electron(s), becomes positively charged ion (cation) (cation) gains electron(s), becomes negatively charged ion (anion)

 Atom  Atom

Ionic Bonding
 One

atom loses electrons, becomes positively charged ion  Another atom gains these electrons, becomes negatively charged ion  Charge difference attracts the two ions to each other

Formation of NaCl
 Sodium


atom (Na) atom (Cl)

Outer shell has one electron Outer shell has seven electrons

 Chlorine


 Na

transfers electron to Cl forming Na+ and Clremain together as NaCl

 Ions

Formation of NaCl
electron transfer

sodium atom 11 p +

chlorine atom 17 p + 17 e-

sodium ion 11 p + 10 e-

chlorine ion 17 p + 18 e-

Electrons and Chemical Bonding

 From

youtube: youtube:

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqjcCv

zWwww

Fig. 2-8a(2), p.24

Ionic and covalent bonding animation

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqjcCv

zWwww

Covalent Bonding
Atoms share a pair or pairs of electrons to fill outermost shell

Single covalent bond Double covalent bond Triple covalent bond

Covalent Bonding
Two hydrogen atoms, each with one proton, share two electrons in a single nonpolar covalent bond. molecular hydrogen (H2) HH

Covalent Bonding
Two oxygen atoms, each with eight protons, share four electrons in a nonpolar double covalent bond.

molecular oxygen (O2) O=O

Oxygen has vacancies for two electrons in its highest energy level orbitals. Two hydrogen atoms can each share an electron with an oxygen. The resulting two polar covalent bonds form a water molecule.

Covalent Bonding

water (H2O) HOH

Fig. 2-8b(3), p.25

Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements

 Compounds


substances composed of two or more elements in a definite ratio by mass can be decomposed into the constituent elements
Water is a compound that can be decomposed into simpler substances hydrogen and oxygen

56

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

 Atoms  Nuclei

share electrons equally

of atoms have same number of protons

 Example:

Hydrogen gas (H-H) (H http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t Opke6cpqWY&feature=channel_vi deo_title

Polar Covalent Bonds

 Number

of protons in nuclei of participating atoms is not equal spend more time near nucleus with most protons

 Electrons

 Water

- Electrons more attracted to O nucleus than to H nuclei  From Youtube: Youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1 lnjg81daBs

Hydrogen Bonding
 Molecule

held together by polar covalent bonds has no net charge atoms of the molecule carry different charges in one polar covalent molecule can be attracted to oppositely charged atom in another such molecule FRM

 However,  Atom

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkl5cbfq

hydrogen bond

Examples of Hydrogen Bonds

water molecule

ammonia molecule

Properties of Water
 Polarity  Temperature-Stabilizing Temperature Solvent  Cohesive

Water Is a Polar Covalent Molecule

 Molecule

has no net
O H + H +

charge
 Oxygen

end has a slight negative charge end has a slight positive charge

 Hydrogen

Liquid Water

Liquid Water

Fig. 2-9c, p.26

Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic Substances



Hydrophilic substances
  

Polar Hydrogen bond with water Example: sugar

Hydrophobic substances
  

Nonpolar Repelled by water Example: oil

TemperatureTemperature-Stabilizing Effects
 Liquid

water can absorb much heat before its temperature rises

 Why?  Much

of the added energy disrupts hydrogen bonding rather than increasing the movement of molecules

Covalent bonding animation.

Evaporation of Water
 Large

energy input can cause individual molecules of water to break free into air molecules break free, they carry away some energy (lower temperature) water loss is used by mammals to lower body temperature

 As

 Evaporative

Why Ice Floats

 In

ice, hydrogen bonds lock molecules in a lattice molecules in lattice are spaced farther apart then those in liquid water is less dense than water

 Water

 Ice

Fig. 2-9e, p.26

Water Is a Good Solvent

 Ions

and polar molecules dissolve easily in water solute dissolves, water molecules cluster around its ions or molecules and keep them separated

 When

Water Cohesion


Hydrogen bonding holds molecules in liquid water together Creates surface tension Allows water to move as continuous column upward through stems of plants

 

Example of Waters Cohesion

Fig. 2-11a, p.27

Example of Waters Cohesion

Fig. 2-11b, p.27

Spheres of Hydration
+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

Na+

Cl
+ + + +

Spheres of hydration

The pH Scale
H+ concentration of fluid  Change of 1 on scale means 10X change in H+ concentration
 Measures

Highest H+ Lowest H+ 0---------------------7-------------------14 ---------------------7-------------------14 Acidic Neutral Basic

Examples of pH
 Pure

water is neutral with pH of 7.0

 Acidic
 

Stomach acid: pH 1.0 - 3.0 Lemon juice: pH 2.3 Seawater: pH 7.8 - 8.3 Baking soda: pH 9.0

 Basic
 

The pH Scale

Fig. 2-12, p.28

Acids & Bases

 Acids


Donate H+ when dissolved in water Acidic solutions have pH < 7

 Bases


Accept H+ when dissolved in water Acidic solutions have pH > 7 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vShCnTY1http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vShCnTY1T0

Weak and Strong Acids

 Weak
  

acids

Reluctant H+ donors Can also accept H after giving it up Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is example

 Strong
 

acids

Completely give up H+ when dissolved Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is example

Acid Rain


A coal-burning power plant emits sulfur dioxide, which dissolves in water vapor to form acid rain

Fig. 2-13, p.29

Salts
 Compounds

that release ions other than H+ and OH- when dissolved in water NaCl releases Na+ and Cl

 Example:  Many

salts dissolve into ions that play important biological roles

Buffer Systems
 Minimize

shifts in pH

 Partnership

between weak acid and base it forms when dissolved work as pair to counter shifts in pH

 Two

Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate AcidBuffer System

 When

blood pH rises, carbonic acid

Base

dissociates to form bicarbonate and H+

Weak acid

H2C03 -----> HC03 + ----->

H+

 When

blood pH drops, bicarbonate binds

H+ to form carbonic acid

-----> HC03- + H+ -----> H2C03 Weak acid
Base

Fig. 2-14, p.31

Fig. 2-15, p.31