is the term applied to systems for dealing with excess water.

 Urban storm drainage  Land drainage  Highway drainage

 A single outfall may be use to convey the storm water to the

point of disposal or a number of disposal points may be selected on the basis of the topography of the area.
Developers are required by some communities to provide

DETENTION BASIS or holding ponds with enough storage so that the outflow from the basins or ponds in a major storm is no grater than the peak outflow that would have occurred from the area prior to its development.
The design of the a drainage project requires a detailed map of

the area with a scale between 1:1000 and 1:5000.

 The first step in the design of storm-drainage works is the

determination of the quantities of water that must be accommodated.

Return periods of 1 or 2 yr in residential districts and 5 to 10 yr

in commercial districts are all that can be justified for the average city.
Drainage projects almost always deal with flows from ungaged

areas, so that design flows must be synthesized from rainfall data.

 For urban drainage, the most widely used method has been

the rational formula using a rainfall of the desired frequency.

The decrease of peak flows resulting from storage in gutters

and pipes is ignored, and peaks from various subareas of the system are assumed to synchronize.
A preliminary layout of the drainage system is required so that

the effect of the improved drainage can be reflected in the simulated flows.

 The discharge capacity of gutters depends on their shape,

slope, and roughness.

 Manning s equation may be used for calculating the flow in

gutters; however, the roughness coefficient n must be modified to account for the effect of lateral inflow from the street.
 For well-finished gutters, n has a value of about 0.016 in the

Manning equation.
The depth of flow and the velocity head increase down slope

in the gutter, and the energy gradient is therefore flatter than the slope of the gutter.

 Gutter-flow is intercepted and directed to an underground

storm-drain pipe system by drop inlets.

The location of the street inlets is determined largely by the

judgement of the designer.

 A maximum width of gutter flow of 6 ft.(1.8m) has been

suggested as a suitable criterion for important highways.

 Inlet is necessary whenever the gutter flow exceeds the gutter

capacity within the limiting 6 ft.(1.8m) width.

GRATED INLETS

Openings in the gutter bottom protected by grates.

 CURB-OPENING INLET

An opening in the face of the curb that operates much like a side-channel spillway. Curb-opening inlets are feasible only where curbs have essentially vertical faces.

 The most efficient grated inlets have bars parallel to the curb

and a sufficient clear length so that water can fall through the opening without hitting a crossbar or the far side of the grate.
Experiment has shown that this free length x should be at

least
x= 0.94Vy 1/2

(metric units)

 Curb-opening inlets function best with relatively steep

traverse slopes.
 I f the depth of the pond exceeds twice the height of the clear

opening in the curb, the discharge is that of an orifice, or Q = 5.62 Lbh Q = 3.1 Lbh
0.5

(English units) (Metric units)

0.5

 A storage basin is often feasible where the discharge is into a

tidal estuary in which fluctuations are regular, and the necessary detention time is relatively short.

 The most common alternative is a combination of pumping

and storage, which permits the use of smaller pumps while the storage absorbs the flow in excess of pump capacity.

Rules in governing selection of pipe size and slope:

1. The pipe is assumed to flow full under conditions of steady, uniform flow. 2. To avoid clogging, the minimum pipe diameter should preferably 10 or 12in.(25 to 30 cm.), although 8-in (20cm.) pipes are used in some cities. 3. The minimum velocity flowing full should be at least 2.5ft/sec(0.75m/s). 4. Pipes should not decrease in the downstream direction even though increased slope may provide adequate capacity in the smaller pipe. 5. Pipe slope should conform to the ground slope in so far as possible for minimum excavation. 6. Pipe grades are described in terms of the elevation of the invert, or inside bottom of the pipe.

 Land drainage removes excess surface water from an area or

lowers the ground-water below the root zone to improve plant growth or reduce the accumulation of soil salts.
 Land drainage is normally a problem in very flat or leveled

land, a disposal works provided with tide gates and pumping equipment is often necessary for the final removal of the collected water.

 Consists of laterals, sub mains, and main ditches.  The slope available for drainage ditches is small, and the cross

sections should approach the most efficient section as closely as possible.  A trapezoidal cross section is most common, with side slopes not steeper than 1 on 1.5.  Slopes of 2:1 or 3:1 are required in sandy oils.  The minimum practicable slope is about 0.00005(3 in/mi, or 5 cm/km).  Ditches are usually between 6 and 12 ft (2 to 4 m) deep.  Lateral ditches must be deep enough to intercept the under drains that are to discharge into them.

 Ditch bottom at junctions should be at the same elevation to

avoid drops that may cause scour.

Right angle junctions encouraged local scour of the bank

opposite the tributary ditch, and the smaller ditch should be designed to enter the larger at an angle of about 30 degrees.
The most important factors controlling the value of

Manning s n for drainage ditches are the neatness with which the ditch is constructed and the extent of vegetal growth in the ditch.

The most common materials of underdrains are plastic pipe,

plain-end clay tile, and concrete pipe.

Two-inch(5cm) pipe was widely used in early drainage projects

but modern practice favors the use of a 4-in(10cm) minimum and some projects have 6 in.(15 cm) as minimum pipe diameter.
Drains are usually spaced 50 to 150 ft (15 to 50 m) apart. Mole drains are tunnels formed in cohesive soil by pulling a

steel ball through it.

The flow of groundwater to a drain pipe is governed by the

same factors controlling the flow to a well. A high water content also reduces soil temperature and retards plant growth. The necessary depth to the water table depends upon the crop, the soil type, the source of the water, and the sanity of the water. The water should be lowered more in heavy clay soils than in light sandy soils. The variation in water-table elevation in the drained land should be not much over 1 ft (30 cm).

The most important factor in determining drain spacing is the

soil permeability.
Since drainage normally involves only a shallow depth of soil,

small-diameter piezometers or open auger holes may serve as test as wells .

Ditches, because of their large dimensions, are somewhat

more effective than pipe drains in removing soil moisture.

 The plan for a system of tile drains is determined largely by

the topography of the area.

NATURAL SYSTEM

Used in rolling topography where drainage is necessary only in a small swales and valleys.
GRIDIRON LAYOUT

Used where the land is practically level or where the land slopes away from the submain on one side.

HERRINGBONE PATTERN

Is being used when the submain is laid in a depression.

DOUBLE-MAIN SYSTEM

Reduces the lengths of the laterals and eliminates the break in the slope of the laterals at the edge of the depression.
INTERCEPTING DRAIN

Used if the main source of excess water is drainage from hill lands, an intercepting drain along the toe of the slope may be all that is required to protect the bottom land.