CONDUCTORS

A CONDUCTOR is any material that easily allows electrons (electricity) to flow. A CONDUCTOR has 1 to 3 free electrons in the outer ring. Because atoms with 1 to 3 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) loosely to the atom, they can easily move to another atom or make room for more electrons. Conductor material includes copper and gold.

INSULATORS
An INSULATOR is any material that inhibits (stops) the flow of electrons (electricity). An insulator is any material with 5 to 8 free electrons in the outer ring. Because, atoms with 5 to 8 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) tightly to the atom, they CANNOT be easily moved to another atom nor make room for more electrons. Insulator material includes glass, rubber, and plastic.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Any material with exactly 4 free electrons in the outer orbit are called SEMICONDUCTORS. A semiconductor is neither a conductor or insulator. semiconductor material includes carbon, silicon, and germanium. These materials are be used in the manufacturer of diodes, transistors, and integrated circuit chips.

Two Current Flow theories exist. The first is:ELECTRON THEORY The Electron Theory states that current flows from NEGATIVE to POSITIVE. Electrons move from atom to atom as they move through the conductor towards positive.

The second Current Flow theory is:CONVENTIONAL THEORY

Conventional theory, also known as HOLE THEORY, states that current flows from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE. Protons or the lack of electrons (the holes) move towards the negative. (Current flow direction in Hole Theory is the opposite of that in Electron Theory.)

VOLTAGE
Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF (Electro Motive Force) that pushes electrons. The greater the difference in electrical potential push (difference between positive and negative), the greater the voltage force potential.

CURRENT (AMPERES)
CURRENT is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past a point within one second. Current flow is also known as amperage, or amps for short. Higher voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower voltage will produce lower current flow.

Current flow is measured in units called Amperes or AMPS.

AFFECTS OF CURRENT FLOW

Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and Electromagnetism. HEAT: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the current flow the greater the heat generated. An example would be a light bulb. If enough current flows across the filament, it will glow white hot and illuminate to produce light. ELECTROMAGNETISM: When current flows, a small magnetic field is created. The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. An example: Electromagnetism principles are used in alternators, ignition systems, and other electronic devices.

RESISTANCE
Resistance is the force that reduces or stops the flow of electrons. It opposes voltage. Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons and lower resistance will allow more electrons to flow.

Resistance is measured in units called OHMS.

RESISTANCE FACTORS Various factors can affect the resistance. These include:LENGTH of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the higher the resistance. DIAMETER of the conductor. The narrower the conductor, the higher the resistance. TEMPERATURE of the material. Depending on the material, most will increase resistance as temperature increases. PHYSICAL CONDITION (DAMAGE) to the material. Any damage will increase resistance. TYPE of MATERIAL used. Various materials have a wide range of resistances.

TYPES OF ELECTRICITY Two basic types of Electricity classifications:STATIC ELECTRICITY is electricity that is standing still. Voltage potential with NO electron flow. DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY is electricity that is in motion. Voltage potential WITH electron flow. Two types of Dynamic electricity exist:1. Direct Current (DC) Electron Flow is in only one direction. 2. Alternating Current (AC) Electron flow alternates and flows in both directions (back and forth).

STATIC ELECTRICITY Voltage potential with NO electron flow. Example: By rubbing a silk cloth on a glass rod, you physically remove electrons from the glass rod and place them on the cloth. The cloth now has a surplus of electrons (negatively charged), and the rod now has a deficiency of electrons (positively charged). Another example: Rub your shoes on a rug and then touch a metal table or chair .... Zap!! The shock you felt was the static electricity dissipating through your body.

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY is electricity in motion, meaning you have electrons flowing, in other words voltage potential WITH electron flow. Two types of dynamic electricity exists:-

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) Electricity with electrons flowing in only one direction is called Direct Current or DC. DC electrical systems are used in cars.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) Electricity with electrons flowing back and forth, negative - positive- negative, is called Alternating Current, or AC. The electrical appliances in your home use AC power.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY Electricity can be created by several means: Friction, Heat, Light, Pressure, Chemical Action, or Magnetic Action. Only a few of these sources of energy are used in the automobile. The battery produces electricity through chemical action, and the alternator produces electricity through magnetic action. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Friction creates static electricity. Heat can act upon a device called a thermo couple to create DC. Light applied to photoelectric materials will produce DC electricity. Pressure applied to a piezoelectric material will produce DC electricity. Chemical Action of certain chemicals will create electricity.

MEASURING INSTRUMENT
A VOLTMETER measures the voltage potential across or parallel to the circuit. The Voltmeter measures the amount of electrical pressure difference between two points being measured. Voltage can exist between two points without electron flow. Voltage is measured in units called VOLTS.

Caution- An Voltmeter should not connected in series.

AMMETER An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are placed in series (inline) to count the electrons passing through it. Current flow is measured in units called Amperes or AMPS.

Caution- An Ammeter should not connected in parallel, if so then heavy current flow through ammeter and it will get damaged.

MEASUREMENT An OHMMETER measures the resistance of an electrical circuit or component. No voltage can be applied while the ohmmeter is connected, or damage to the meter will occur.

OHMMETER

MEGGER
It is a portable instrument used for testing the insulation resistance of circuit and for measuring resistance of the order of mega ohms. Its range of voltage are- 500V, 1000V, 2500V, 5000V There are two types of megger is a hand driven and electrical. Minimum megger value of any equipment should not be less then one mega ohms

Hand driven megger

Electrical megger

CLAMP METER

A current transformer with a single conductor is used in combination with abridge rectifier & D.C ammeter (digital) to produce a very useful service meter called clamp meter. The core can be split with the help of hinge therefore the core can be clamped around life conductor to measure the current. Thus this arrangement avoids the necessity of breaking the circuit in order that a current measuring device be inserting in series with it to measure the value of current flowing.. By changing shunt resistance different range of current can be measured.

Different type of power supply system 1. Star connected 3 phase 4 wire system

2. Star connected 3 phase 3 wire system

3. Delta connected 3 phase 3 wire system

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS Electrical home appliances:During the 1950s, the role of women was generally considered to be that of the 'homemaker'. Bright television and magazine advertisements encouraged women to stay at home and create a domestic haven for their families using the new appliances on offer. These devices promised to raise standards of living and release housewives from the shackles of household chores.

Electrical equipments in plant

Motor:An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator

Transformer:A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another with out electrically connected.

Home Electrical Safety at home Electricity is all around us especially in-doors. There are many things to remember in order to be safe around electricity:Do not play with power points or appliances. Do not play with power points. Power points can shock, give a zap that will hurt, burn or kill. Power points need to be protected where there are babies or small children.

Lots of electrical cords in one socket are dangerous. Putting many plugs in one socket is dangerous. It is called "piggy-backing". Instead of using a socket with many plugs, use a power board.

Tell a responsible adult about broken electrical plugs or cords. Always get an electrician to fix broken or damaged electrical equipment. To try to fix electrical equipment yourself is dangerous.

Water and electricity do not mix. Together they are a very dangerous combination. Never touch electrical appliances or switches with wet hands. In the bathroom, make sure electrical appliances like hairdryers or shavers can not fall into the bath or basin. Keep extension cords, or portable appliances (like electric radios or televisions) away from the bath or pool.

BOILER OPERATION SYSTEM

RAPER

E.S.P

Gener ator TURBINE

CONVEYER
INLET STEAM

I.D FAN

CHEMINY

BOILER