Artificial Intelligence Dr.

Anupam Shukla

Some material adopted from notes by Artificial Intelligence by Rich Knight Artificial Intelligence and Expert System by Patterson

Introduction

If human beings can think why not machines?

If machines can think, How?

If machines can not think, Why?

Can they surpass human performance?

And what does this say about the mind?

What is artificial intelligence?

There are no clear consensus on the definition of AI INTELLIGENCE Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world. Varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur in people, many animals and some machines. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.

Other possible AI definitions

AI is a collection of hard problems which can be solved by humans and other living things, but for which we dont have good algorithms for solving. e. g., understanding spoken natural language, medical diagnosis, circuit design, learning, self-adaptation, reasoning, chess playing, proving math theories, etc. A program that Acts like human (Turing test) Thinks like human (human-like patterns of thinking steps) Acts or thinks rationally (logically, correctly)

Easy Problems in AI
Its been easier to mechanize many of the high level cognitive tasks we usually associate with intelligence in people e. g., symbolic integration, proving theorems, playing chess, some aspect of medical diagnosis, etc.

Hard Problems in AI
Its been very hard to mechanize tasks that animals can do easily walking around without running into things catching prey and avoiding predators interpreting complex sensory information (visual, aural, ) modeling the internal states of other animals from their behavior working as a team (ants, bees) Is there a fundamental difference between the two categories? Why some complex problems (e.g., solving differential equations, database operations) are not subjects of AI

Foundations of AI
Mathematics
Computer Science & Engineering

Philosophy

Economics

AI
Cognitive Science

Biology

Psychology

Linguistics

Foundations of AI
 

  

Philosophy: Logic, reasoning, mind as a physical system, foundations of learning, language and rationality. Mathematics: Formal representation and proof algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability, probability. Psychology: adaptation, phenomena of perception and motor control. Economics: formal theory of rational decisions, game theory. Linguistics: knowledge represetatio, grammar. Neuroscience: physical substrate for mental activities. Control theory: homeostatic systems, stability, optimal agent design.
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A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

AI has roots in a number of scientific disciplines computer science and engineering (hardware and software) philosophy (rules of reasoning) mathematics (logic, algorithms, optimization) cognitive science and psychology (modeling high level human/animal thinking) neural science (model low level human/animal brain activity) linguistics

A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

The birth of AI (1943 1956) Pitts and McCulloch (1943): simplified mathematical model of neurons (resting/firing states) can realize all propositional logic primitives (can compute all Turing computable functions) Allen Turing: Turing machine and Turing test (1950) Claude Shannon: information theory; possibility of chess playing computers Tracing back to Boole, Aristotle, Euclid (logics, syllogisms)

A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

Early enthusiasm (1952 1969) 1956 Dartmouth conference John McCarthy (Lisp); Marvin Minsky (first neural network machine); Alan Newell and Herbert Simon (GPS); Emphasize on intelligent general problem solving GSP (means-ends analysis); Lisp (AI programming language); Resolution by John Robinson (basis for automatic theorem proving); heuristic search (A*, AO*, game tree search)

A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

Emphasis on knowledge (1966 1974) domain specific knowledge is the key to overcome existing difficulties knowledge representation (KR) paradigms declarative vs. procedural representation Knowledge-based systems (1969 1999) DENDRAL: the first knowledge intensive system (determining 3D structures of complex chemical compounds) MYCIN: first rule-based expert system (containing 450 rules for diagnosing blood infectious diseases) EMYCIN: an ES shell PROSPECTOR: first knowledge-based system that made significant profit (geological ES for mineral deposits)

A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

AI became an industry (1980 1989) wide applications in various domains commercially available tools Current trends (1990 present) more realistic goals more practical (application oriented) distributed AI and intelligent software agents resurgence of neural networks and emergence of genetic algorithms

Programming languages for AI

The relational languages like PROLOG [ PROgramming in LOgic] AND LISP [LISt Processing in AI. LISP is well suited for handling lists, where as PROLOG is designed For logic Programming A procedural language that offers call for relational function or a relational language that allows interface with a procedural. Recently a number of shell are available, where the user needs to submit knowledge only and the shall offers the implementation of both symbolic processing simultaneously.

Architecture of AI machine
At the early stage of programs of AI, common machine used for conventional programming were also used for AI programming. AI programs deal with more relational operators than number crusting, hence new architecture was proposed for the evolution of AI programs. Most of this architecture are used in research laboratory, and are not available in the open commercial market. This special architecture, called LISP and PROLOG machine.

Possible Approaches
Like humans Well
Rational agents

Think Act

GPS

AI tends to work mostly in this area

Eliza

Heuristic systems

Like humans

Well
Rational agents

Think well

Think

GPS

Act

Eliza

Heuristic systems

Develop formal models of knowledge representation, reasoning, learning, memory, problem solving, that can be rendered in algorithms. There is often an emphasis on a systems that are provably correct, and guarantee finding an optimal solution.

Like humans

Well
Rational agents

Act well


Think

GPS

For a given set of inputs, generate an appropriate output that is not necessarily correct but gets the job done.

Act

Eliza

Heuristic systems

A heuristic (heuristic rule, heuristic method) is a rule of thumb, strategy, trick, simplification, or any other kind of device which drastically limits search for solutions in large problem spaces. Heuristics do not guarantee optimal solutions; in fact, they do not guarantee any solution at all: all that can be said for a useful heuristic is that it offers solutions which are good enough most of the time. Feigenbaum and Feldman, 1963, p. 6

Like humans

Well
Rational agents

Think like humans

 

Think

GPS

Eliza Act Cognitive science approach systems Focus not just on behavior and I/O but also look at reasoning process. Computational model should reflect how results were obtained. Provide a new language for expressing cognitive theories and new mechanisms for evaluating them GPS (General Problem Solver): Goal not just to produce humanlike behavior (like ELIZA), but to produce a sequence of steps of the reasoning process that was similar to the steps followed by a person in solving the same task.

Heuristic

Like humans

Well
Rational agents

Act like humans

Think

GPS

Act

Eliza

Heuristic systems

 

Behaviorist approach. Not interested in how you get results, just the similarity to what human results are. Exemplified by the Turing Test (Alan Turing, 1950).

Turing Test
 

Three rooms contain a person, a computer, and an interrogator. The interrogator can communicate with the other two by teleprinter. The interrogator tries to determine which is the person and which is the machine. The machine tries to fool the interrogator into believing that it is the person. If the machine succeeds, then we conclude that the machine can think.

Eliza
  

ELIZA: A program that simulated a psychotherapist interacting with a patient and successfully passed the Turing Test. Coded at MIT during 1964-1966 by Joel Weizenbaum. First script was DOCTOR.  The script was a simple collection of syntactic patterns not unlike regular expressions  Each pattern had an associated reply which might include bits of the input (after simple transformations (my p your) Weizenbaum was shocked at reactions:  Psychiatrists thought it had potential.  People unequivocally anthropomorphized.  Many thought it solved the NL problem.

What can AI systems do

Here are some example applications  Computer vision: face recognition from a large set  Robotics: autonomous (mostly) automobile  Natural language processing: simple machine translation  Expert systems: medical diagnosis in a narrow domain  Spoken language systems: ~1000 word continuous speech  Planning and scheduling: Hubble Telescope experiments  Learning: text categorization into ~1000 topics  User modeling: Bayesian reasoning in Windows help (the infamous paper clip)  Games: Grand Master level in chess (world champion), checkers, etc.

State of the art



Deep Blue defeated the reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997 Proved a mathematical conjecture (Robbins conjecture) unsolved for decades No hands across America (driving autonomously 98% of the time from Pittsburgh to San Diego) During the 1991 Gulf War, US forces deployed an AI logistics planning and scheduling program that involved up to 50,000 vehicles, cargo, and people NASA's on-board autonomous planning program controlled the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft Proverb solves crossword puzzles better than most humans

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Why is AI different than conventional programming?



Strive for
 

GENERALITY EXTENSIBILITY

  

Capture rational deduction patterns Tackle problems with no algorithmic solution Represent and manipulate KNOWLEDGE, rather than DATA A new set of representation and programming techniques: HEURISTICS

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What cant AI systems do yet?



      

Understand natural language robustly (e.g., read and understand articles in a newspaper) Surf the web Interpret an arbitrary visual scene Learn a natural language Play Go well Construct plans in dynamic real-time domains Refocus attention in complex environments Perform life-long learning

Areas of AI and their inter-dependencies

Search Logic Knowledge Representation

Machine Learning

Planning

NLP
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Vision

Robotics
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Expert Systems
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Traveling Salesman Problem

states
locations illegal

/ cities

states city may be visited only once cities must be kept as state information

each

visited

initial

state point (operators) cities visited from one location to another one

starting no

successor function move goal

test locations visited at the initial location between locations

all

agent path

cost

distance

states
positions

VLSI Layout
of components, wires on a

chip
initial

state no components placed

incremental:

all components placed (e.g. randomly, manually)

successor

complete-state:

function (operators) place components, route move component,

incremental:

wire
complete-state:

move wire
goal

test components placed connected as specified

all

components path

cost be complex capacity, number of connections per component

distance,

may

Robot Navigation
states
locations position

of actuators

initial

state
position (dependent on the

start

task)
successor

function (operators)
of actuators

movement, actions

goal

test cost
be very complex
energy consumption

task-dependent

path

may

distance,

Assembly Sequencing
states
location

of components

initial
no

state
components assembled

successor
place

function (operators)

component

goal

test
fully assembled

system

path

cost
of moves

number

Searching for Solutions

traversal
from legal

of the search space

the initial state to a goal state sequence of actions as defined by successor function (operators)

general
check

procedure
for goal state the current state
the set of reachable states failure if the set is empty

expand

determine return

select move

one from the set of reachable states to the selected state

a

search tree is generated

nodes

are added as more states are visited

Some references;  Daniel C. Dennet. Consciousness explained.  M. Posner (edt.) Foundations of cognitive science  Francisco J. Varela et al. The Embodied Mind  J.-P. Dupuy. The mechanization of the mind

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Some references


Understanding Intelligence by Rolf Pfeifer and Christian Scheier. Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problemsolving by George Luger. Computation and Intelligence: Collective readings edited by George Luger. Paradigms of Artificial Intelligence Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp by Peter Norvig.
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