NETWORKING

What is a Network? A network is simply a group of two or more Personal Computers linked together. Most people decide to network because they have more than one computer and want to share one broadband Internet connection, whether at home or at the office. There are other benefits as well, including the ability to share files, pictures, music and more with everyone on the network. Everyone can share a single printer and gamers can play against competitors on the network or connect game consoles to take advantage of online gaming. If the network is wireless-enabled, desktop computers can be set up where they're convenient in the home or small office, not just where there happens to be a wire. And laptop computer users are free to roam almost anywhere in, or around, the network without losing their connection. In short, a network is convenient and it can save you money. Doesn't that sound good?

NETWORK APPLICATIONS Computer-based communications systems allow end users to transmit data from one location to another via various types of communications lines. This type of communication has dramatically expanded the scope of business activities. The most vital component of any data communications system is the network. The network is any system that makes interaction between two or more computers possible. Today, computer users can tap into a vast number of resources to retrieve information on a variety of subjects and events. For example, a CEO of a nationwide corporation may wish to examine information about regional sales levels or expected economic conditions. This section examines two types of network applications: Groupware and the Information Superhighway (Internet). These two applications are the future of information technology. Groupware This is a communications application that is growing in popularity (also called collaboration technology). Groupware is software that helps groups of people to work together more productively. Groupware allows people to exchange ideas, debate issues, make decisions, and write reports without actually having to meet face-to-face. The most important advantage of Groupware is its ability to help groups make decisions faster.

This section focuses on four popular types of Groupware: Electronic Mail Electronic mail (E-Mail) is one of the earliest Groupware tools and is also the most heavily used tool today. E-mail is faster and cheaper than regular mail, and can substitute for telephone conversations in some cases. Several standards have been developed to ensure compatibility between different software packages. They include X.400, CMC (Common Messaging Calls), and MAPI (Massaging Application Program Interface). Document-based Groupware (Notes) Notes was the first document-based Groupware product. It is a document database designed to store and manage large collections of text and graphics to support ongoing discussions.

Group Support Systems (GSS) Group Support System, one of the most popular uses of Groupware, is a software tool designed to improve group decision making in special purpose meeting rooms that provide networked computers and large screen video projection systems. These rooms are equipped with special-purpose GSS software that enables participants to communicate, propose ideas, analyze options, and evaluate alternatives. A group of employees could view a document displayed on a projector screen. Then, each employee could manipulate the data from his station while others observed the resulting changes. Video Teleconferencing This is a video conference among several users, which is provided by one or more video cameras and several display monitors set up in special purpose meeting rooms. It provides real-time transmission of video and audio signals to help people in different locations to have a meeting. The advantage of this technology is the time and cost savings.

How are Networks Categorized? Networks are usually classified using three properties: Topology, Protocol, and Architecture. Topology specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. Common topologies are a bus, ring, and star. Protocol specifies a common set of rules and signals the computers on the network use to communicate. Most networks use Ethernet, but some networks may use IBM's Token Ring protocol. We recommend Ethernet for both home and office networking. Architecture refers to one of the two major types of network architecture: Peer-to-peer or client/server. In a Peer-to-Peer networking configuration, there is no server, and computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is most commonly found in home configurations, and is only practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers. In a client/server network, there is usually an NT Domain Controller, which all of the computers log on to. This server can provide various services, including centrally routed Internet Access, mail (including e-mail), file sharing, and printer access, as well as ensuring security across the network. This is most commonly found in corporate configurations, where network security is essential.

Types of Networks

Local Area Networks (LANs) A local area network is two or more computers directly linked within a small area such as room, building, office, campus area and even closely placed buildings.LAN is usually a private network. The no. of computers in a LAN depends on small or large network. it can be of order of 2-25 or even 10,000. Length of cable connecting a computer to LAN also varies depending on LAN. Most LANs allow cables of about 1000 feet. This purely depends on the Equipment used in LAN setup. The data speed also depends on the equipment of LAN. It can vary between several thousand bits/second to several million bits/second.

LANs provide us the following services: Hardware sharing(CD Rom, Printer, Hard disk) File sharing Modem sharing

Wide Area Networks (WANs) Often elements of a network are widely separated physically in a WAN. Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the several LANs with dedicated leased lines such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines, by satellite links and by data packet carrier services. WANs can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked. WAN can be public or private network. The most common Example of WAN is Internet. This network is very expensive network so it is only used by various government agencies or large corporate companies.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network, which is the linking of two or more computers or devices without using wires. WLAN utilizes spread-spectrum or OFDM modulation technology based on radio waves to enable communication between devices in a limited area, also known as the basic service set. This gives users the mobility to move around within a broad coverage area and still be connected to the network. For the home user, wireless has become popular due to ease of installation, and location freedom with the gaining popularity of laptops. Public businesses such as coffee shops or malls have begun to offer wireless access to their customers; some are even provided as a free service. Large wireless network projects are being put up in many major cities.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks. Metropolitan area networks can span up to 50km, devices used are modem and wire/cable.

Topologies

Network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a network. Topology can also be described as Physical Arrangement of Network. A node is an active device connected to the network, such as a computer or a printer. A node can also be a piece of networking equipment such as a hub, switch or a router.

RING TOPOLOGY A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a circular pathway for signals: a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node handling every packet. Ring topology is a type of computer network configuration where each network computer and device are connected to each other forming a large circle (or similar shape). Each packet is sent around the ring until it reaches its final destination.

Advantages Smaller cable lengths required Can create much larger network using Token Ring Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers

Disadvantages One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the network can create problems for the entire network Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network (Reconfiguration of network is difficult) Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load Difficult to diagnose faults

BUS TOPOLOGY A type of network setup where each of the computers and network devices are connected to a single cable or backbone. A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a shared communications line, called a bus.

Advantages Easy to implement and extend Requires less cable length than a star topology Well suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds(quick setup) Cheaper than other topologies. Disadvantages Limited cable length and number of stations. If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run. Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic. Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path). It works best with limited number of nodes. It is slower than the other topologies

STAR TOPOLOGY Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet cables also known as RJ45 cables. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN.

Advantages Better performance: Passing of Data Packet through unnecessary nodes is prevented by this topology. Benefits from centralization: As the central hub is the bottleneck, increasing capacity of the central hub or adding additional devices to the star, can help scale the network very easily. Simplicity: The topology is easy to understand, establish, and navigate. The simple topology obviates the need for complex routing or message passing protocols. The isolation and centralization simplifies fault detection, as each link or device can be probed individually.

Disadvantages The primary disadvantage of a star topology is the high dependence of the system on the functioning of the central hub. While the failure of an individual link only results in the isolation of a single node, the failure of the central hub renders the network inoperable, immediately isolating all nodes. The performance and scalability of the network also depend on the capabilities of the hub. Furthermore, wiring up of the system can be very complex.

MESH TOPOLOGY Mesh networking is a way to route data, voice and instructions between nodes. It allows for continuous connections and reconfiguration around broken or blocked paths by hopping from node to node until the destination is reached. A mesh network whose nodes are all connected to each other is a fully connected network. Mesh networks differ from other networks in that the component parts can all connect to each other via multiple hops, and they generally are not mobile.

Advantages Ease of Installation Ease of Troubleshooting Ease of Reconfiguration

HYBRID TOPOLOGY A combination of two or more network topologies. The resultant is a hybrid network. The backbone is a mesh network with local loops of other networks (Star, Bus, Ring, etc.)

TREE TOPOLOGY The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy the hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node in the network having a specific fixed number, f, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, f, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.

Advantages of a Tree Topology Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several hardware and software venders. Disadvantages of a Tree Topology Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Hardware Required for Network Setup

Transmission media Network interface card or LAN card Servers Workstation or computers Central Devices (Hub, Switch or Router in case of large LANs)

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

GUIDED MEDIA (Wired) UNGUIDED MEDIA (Wireless)

GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Coaxial Cable Coaxial cables were the first cable types used in LANs. As shown in FIG. coaxial cable gets its name because two conductors share a common axis; the cable is most frequently referred to as a coax. The components of a coaxial cable are as follows: A center conductor, although usually solid copper wire, sometimes is made of stranded wire. An outer conductor forms a tube surrounding the center conductor. This conductor can consist of braided wires, metallic foil, or both. The outer conductor, frequently called the shield, serves as a ground and also protects the inner conductor from EMI. An insulation layer keeps the outer conductor spaced evenly from the inner conductor. A plastic encasement (jacket) protects the cable from damage.

Most common example Cable TV wires. The two basic classifications for coaxial cable are as follows: Thinnet: It is a light and flexible cabling medium that is inexpensive and easy to install. Note that Thinnet falls under the RG-58 family, which has a 50-Ohm impedance. Thinnet is approximately .25 inches (6 mm) in thickness. Thinnet cable can reliably transmit a signal for 185 meters (about 610 feet). Thicknet: Thicknetbig surpriseis thicker than Thinnet. Thicknet coaxial cable is approximately 0.5 inches (13 mm) in diameter. Because it is thicker and does not bend as readily as Thinnet, Thicknet cable is harder to work with. A thicker center core, however, means that Thicknet can carry more signals a longer distance than Thinnet. Thicknet can transmit a signal approximately 500 meters (1650 feet). Because of its greater size, Thicknet is also more expensive than Thinnet. Thicknet can be installed safely outside, running from building to building.

Two types of connectors are commonly used with coaxial cable. The most common is the British Naval Connector (BNC). Fig. depicts the following characteristics of BNC connectors and Thinnet cabling: A BNC T-connector connects the network board in the PC to the network. The Tconnector attaches directly to the network board. BNC cable connectors attach cable segments to the T-connectors. A BNC barrel connector connects to Thinnet cables. Both ends of the cable must be terminated. A BNC terminator is a special connector that includes a resistor that is carefully matched to the characteristics of the cable system. One of the terminators must be grounded. A wire from the connector is attached to a grounded point, such as the center screw of a grounded electrical outlet. In contrast, Thicknet uses N-connectors, which screw on instead of using a twistlock (see Fig.). As with Thinnet, both ends of the cable must be terminated, and one end must be grounded.

Twisted-Pair Cable Twisted-pair cable has become the dominant cable type for all new network designs that employ copper cable. Among the several reasons for the popularity of twistedpair cable, the most significant is its low cost. Twisted-pair cable is inexpensive to install and offers the lowest cost per foot of any cable type. A basic twisted-pair cable consists of two strands of copper wire twisted together (see Fig.). This twisting reduces the sensitivity of the cable to EMI and also reduces the tendency of the cable to radiate radio frequency noise that interferes with nearby cables and electronic components. This is because the radiated signals from the twisted wires tend to cancel each other out. (Antennas, which are purposely designed to radiate radio frequency signals, consist of parallel, not twisted, wires.) Twisting also controls the tendency of the wires in the pair to cause EMI in each other. Whenever two wires are in close proximity, the signals in each wire tend to produce noise, called crosstalk, in the other. Twisting the wires in the pair reduces crosstalk in much the same way that twisting reduces the tendency of the wires to radiate EMI.

The two basic classifications for Twisted-Pair cable are as follows: Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP): Shielded twisted-pair cabling consists of one or more twisted pairs of cables enclosed in a foil wrap and woven copper shielding. More costly than UTP cables and hence used in networking of large corporates.

DIN-type connector

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP): Unshielded twisted-pair cable doesnt incorporate a braided shield into its structure. However, the characteristics of UTP are similar in many ways to STP, differing primarily in attenuation and EMI. Telephone systems commonly use UTP cabling. Network engineers can sometimes use existing UTP telephone cabling (if it is new enough and of a high enough quality to support network communications) for network cabling. Most commonly used in LAN type networks.

UTP cable is available in the following five grades, or categories: Categories 1 and 2. These voice-grade cables are suitable only for voice and for low data rates (below 4 Mbps). Cate-gory 1 was once the standard voice-grade cable for telephone systems. The growing need for data-ready cabling systems, however, has caused Categories 1 and 2 cable to be supplanted by Category 3 for new installations. Category 3. As the lowest data-grade cable, this type of cable generally is suited for data rates up to 10 Mbps. Some innovative schemes, however, enable the cable to support data rates up to 100 Mbps. Category 3, which uses four twisted-pairs with three twists per foot, is now the standard cable used for most telephone installations. Category 4. This data-grade cable, which consists of four twisted-pairs, is suitable for data rates up to 16 Mbps. Category 5. This data-grade cable, which also consists of four twisted-pairs, is suitable for data rates up to 100 Mbps. Most new cabling systems for 100 Mbps data rates are designed around Category 5 cable. Category 6. This data-grade cable, which also consists of four twisted-pairs, is suitable for data rates of more than 1 Gbps. Most new cabling systems for speed of more than 1 Gbps data rates are designed around Category 6 cable.

The most common connector used with UTP cables is the RJ-45 connector, shown in Fig. These connectors are easy to install on cables and are also extremely easy to connect and disconnect. An RJ-45 connector has eight pins and looks like a common RJ-11 telephone jack. They are slightly different sizes and wont fit together: an RJ-11 has only four pins. The advantage of STP over UTP is even more shielding. The disadvantages are that STP costs more, is heavier, and is harder to install as the shielding makes the cable less flexible.

Fibre-Optic Cable In almost every way, fiber-optic cable is the ideal cable for data transmission. Not only does this type of cable accommodate extremely high bandwidths, but it also presents no problems with EMI and supports durable cables and cable runs as long as several kilometers. The two disadvantages of fiber-optic, however, are cost and installation difficulty. The center conductor of a fiber-optic cable is a fiber that consists of highly refined glass or plastic designed to transmit light signals with little loss. A glass core supports a longer cabling distance, but a plastic core is typically easier to work with. The fiber is coated with a cladding that reflects signals back into the fiber to reduce signal loss. A plastic sheath protects the fiber. (See Fig.)

A fiber-optic network cable consists of two strands separately enclosed in plastic sheathsone strand sends and the other receives. Two types of cable configurations are available: loose and tight configurations. Loose configurations incorporate a space between the fiber sheath and the outer plastic encasement; this space is filled with a gel or other material. Tight configurations contain strength wires between the conductor and the outer plastic encasement. In both cases, the plastic encasement must supply the strength of the cable, while the gel layer or strength wires protect the delicate fiber from mechanical damage. Optical fiber cables dont transmit electrical signals. Instead, the data signals must be converted into light signals. Light sources include lasers and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LEDs are inexpensive but produce a fairly poor quality of light suitable for less-stringent applications. One of the significant difficulties of installing fiber-optic cable arises when two cables must be joined. The small cores of the two cables (some are as small as 8.3 microns) must be lined up with extreme precision to prevent excessive signal loss. Fiber-optic cable can support high data rates (as high as 200,000 Mbps) even with long cable runs. Although UTP cable runs are limited to less than 100 meters with 100 Mbps data rates, fiber-optic cables can transmit 100 Mbps signals for several kilometers.

Fibre-Optic Cable In almost every way, fiber-optic cable is the ideal cable for data transmission. Not only does this type of cable accommodate extremely high bandwidths, but it also presents no problems with EMI and supports durable cables and cable runs as long as several kilometers. The two disadvantages of fiber-optic, however, are cost and installation difficulty. The center conductor of a fiber-optic cable is a fiber that consists of highly refined glass or plastic designed to transmit light signals with little loss. A glass core supports a longer cabling distance, but a plastic core is typically easier to work with. The fiber is coated with a cladding that reflects signals back into the fiber to reduce signal loss. A plastic sheath protects the fiber. (See Fig.)