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Coding
Data Entry
Step Two: Coding: Grouping and assigning numeric codes to the question responses.
Step Three: Data Entry: Process of converting data to an electronic form Can use scanning devices to enter data Scanning the questionnaire into a data base (such as with bubble sheets) Step Four: Clean the Data: Check for data entry errors or data entry inconsistencies Machine cleaning - computerized check of the data Step Five: Data tabulations and statistical analysis.
Skip Patterns:
Sequence in which later questions are asked, based on a respondents answer to an earlier or questions.
Coding
Coding:
The Process of grouping and assigning numeric codes to the various responses to a question. The Process: List Responses Consolidate Responses Set Codes Enter Codes Keep Coding Sheet
Data Entry
Data Entry:
The Process of converting information to an electronic format.
Error Checking Routines: Computer programs that accept instructions from the user to check for logical errors in the data.
Marginal Report: Computer-generated table of the frequencies of the responses to each question, used to monitor entry of valid codes and correct use of skip patterns.
Are You a Veteran? (All) You Liked the Chamber's Services (All) Race/Ethnicity (All) Count of Respondent Business Category Computers/Technology Construction General Services Manufacturing No Response Other Professional Retail Wholesale #N/A Grand Total Gender Female Male Grand Total 5 7 12 2 4 6 1 1 13 6 19 1 4 5 15 11 26 1 3 4 4 4 8 1 1 2 1 1 42 42 84
Multi-variate cross-tabulation: Additional filtering criteria Status - Now filtering three items.
Race/Ethnicity (All) Are You a Veteran? Yes You Liked the Chamber's Services (All) Count of Respondent Business Category Computers/Technology Construction Manufacturing Other Professional Grand Total
Veteran
6 2
Descriptive Statistics
Effective means of summarizing large data sets. Key measures include: mean, median, mode, kurtosis, standard deviation, skewness, and variance.
Significant discrepancies in Mean and Median should cause you to look further into this data.
Years in Business Mean Standard Error Median Mode Standard Deviation Sample Variance Kurtosis Skewness Range Minimum Maximum Sum Count 22.4 2.6 15.0 5.0 23.1 534.5 3.8 2.1 98.0 2.0 100.0 1770.5 79.0
Descriptive Statistics
Mean:
The sum of the values for all observations of a variable divided by the number of observations.
Median:
In an ordered set, the value below which 50 percent of the observations fall.
Mode:
The value that occurs most frequently.
Descriptive Statistics
Variance:
The sums of the squared deviations from the mean divided by the number of observations minus one. The same formula as standard deviation with the squaring.
Range:
The maximum value for a variable minus the minimum value for that variable.
sum
Standard Deviation:
Calculated by:
Standard Deviation
(X1- X) (N-1)
subtracting the mean of a series from each value in a series squaring each result then summing them then dividing the result by the number of items minus 1 and finally taking the square root of this value
Statistical Significance
Mathematical Differences:
By definition, if numbers are not exactly the same, they are different. This fact does not, however, mean that the difference is either important or statistically significant.
Statistical Significance:
If a particular difference is large enough to be unlikely to have occurred because of chance or sampling error, then the difference is statistically significant.
Statistical Significance
Managerial Important Differences:
One must be able to distinguish between mathematically differences and statistically significant differences in using the data analysis in managerial decision making.
Hypothesis:
An assumption, argument, or theory that a researcher or manager makes about some characteristics of the population under study.
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis Testing
Type II:
Acceptance of the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is false.
Tests are either one or two-tailed. This decision depend on the nature of the situation and what the researcher is demonstrating. One-Tailed: If you take the medicine, you will get better
Two-Tailed: If you take the medicine, you will get either better or worse.
Fail to Reject Ho
Reject Ho
Ho is true
Type I error ( E)
Ho is false
Type II error ( F)
Independent Samples:
Samples in which measurement of a variable in one population has no effect on measurement of the variable in the other.
Related Samples:
Samples in which measurement of a variable in one population might influence measurement of the variable in the other.
Degrees of Freedom:
Is equal to the number of observations minus the number of assumptions or constraints necessary to calculate a statistic.
Hypothesis Tests
About One and Two Means Respectively
Z-Test:
Hypothesis test used for a single mean if the sample is large enough and drawn from a normal population. Usually for samples of about 30 and above.
t-Test:
Hypothesis test used for a single mean if the sample is too small to use the Z-test. Usually for samples below 30.
Hypothesis Tests
About Proportions and P-Value
p-value:
The exact probability of getting a computed test statistic that was largely due to chance. The smaller the p-value, the smaller the probability that the observed result occurred by chance.
In Slide Show mode, click on the arrow to be taken to the respective web page.
Math Software - http://gams.nist.gov Minitab - www.minitab.com SAS - www.sas.com SPSS - www.spss.com Stata - www.stata.com SYSTAT - www.systat.com Vizion - www.datadesk.com/viz!on xISTAT - www.xlstat.com
Independent Variable: Variable believed to affect the value of the dependent variable.
Types of Relationships
As Found in Scatterplot Diagrams
Y Y
Types of Relationships
As Found in Scatterplot Diagrams
Used to fit data for X and Y not plotted; Enables estimation of non-plotted data points; Results in a straight line that fits the actual observations (plotted dots) better than any other line that could be fit to the observations.
Y
Y = a + bX + e Where: Y = dependent variable a = estimated Y intercept b = estimated slope of the regression line X = independent variable e = error
Where:
b=
7 X iY i - n X Y 7 X 2 i - n(X ) 2
a = Y - bX
n = sample size
Measures of Association
Coefficient of Determination:
Percentage of the total variation in the dependent variable explained by the manipulation of the independent variable(s).
n Total Variation - Unexplained Variation Total Variation
R =
R2 =
1-
I=1 n I=1
7 (Y i - Y i)
2
7 (Y i - Y )
Pearson Correlation:
Analysis of the degree to which changes in one variable are associated with changes in another for use with metric data.
R = + or -
R2
The coefficient of determination: the percentage of the total variation in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable.
Sum of Squares
Total Variation: Sum of Squares (SST)
SST =
n
7 (Yi - Y)2
i=1
n n
i=1
7 Yi
i=1
7 Yi 2 n
Sum of Squares
Sum of Squares due to Regression (SSR)
SSR = 7 (Yi - Y)2
i=1
2
n n n
= a 7 Yi + i=1
b7 1Xi Yi i=
7 Y i=1 i n
Sum of Squares
Error Sums of Squares (SSE)
n
i=1
7 Y 2i
a7 1 i Y i=
b7 1XiYi i=
Correlation
Assessing Measures of Association
Correlation
Assessing Measures of Association
Measures of Association:
Do not mean there is a causal relationship between the relevant variables; Could simply represent coincidence between the relevant variables; Should be taken in context and with the timeliness of both data sets in mind; Can be used in conjunction with cross tabulations of the relevant data to add another perspective to the results.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Title Page: Include the submitters information Letter of Transmittal: Letter giving ownership of the research. Table of Contents Executive Summary: A page or two highlighting the key findings. Background: Relevant historical information that set the stage for the research Methodology: Detail how you conducted the research
Findings: Dovetail the findings with the research objectives and tie in the secondary data into the primary findings. Combination of a descriptive and analytic approach is generally best 8. Limitations: Discuss problems faced and how they were handled. 9. Conclusions: Summarize the key headlines of the research findings. 10. Recommendations: Give management action items based on the research. 11. Appendices: Relevant supporting documents, tables, data, etc. 7.
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The Presentation
When Presenting, One Might Use:
A presentation outline; Visuals - charts on easels, PowerPoint, etc.; Copies of the final report; Web options; An executive summary; Researcher contact information.
The Presentation
Tailored to the Audience - Understand Their:
Frame of reference; Attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and prejudices; Educational background / level of research knowledge; Time constraints for the presentation and for action; Position within the organization; Interest in hearing the results.
The Presentation
Persuasion - Using the Research Findings to Reinforce Conclusions:
Questions the researcher should keep in mind:
What do the data really mean? What impact do they have? How can the data be conveyed simply? How can one make the data valuable and applicable? What have we learned from the data? What do we need to do given the information we now have? How can future studies of this nature be enhanced? What can make information such as this more useful?
The Presentation
Showing the Value of the Research Key Factors in the Use of Marketing Research:
The perceived creditability and usefulness of the report to the users; The degree of client and researcher interaction; The organizational climate for research; The personality and organizational level of key users.
Increase sales and improve customer satisfaction; Better position the company competitively; Make investors happy; Improve company effectiveness and efficiency; Help the company control costs; Help the company identify opportunities; Lead to tangible quality and performance measures; Enable the company to stay ahead of customers needs and wants.