Polarization Light Intro

Polarization of Light: from Basics to Instruments
(in less than 100 slides)
N. Manset CFHT
Introduction
Part I: Different polarization states of light Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices Part III: Optical components for polarimetry Part IV: Polarimeters Part V: ESPaDOnS
N. Manset / CFHT
Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments
Part I: Different polarization states of light

Light as an electromagnetic wave Mathematical and graphical descriptions of polarization Linear, circular, elliptical light Polarized, unpolarized light
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Part I: Polarization states
Light as an electromagnetic wave

Light is a transverse wave, an electromagnetic wave
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Mathematical description of the EM wave
Light wave that propagates in the z direction:

T T E x (z, t ) ! E 0x cos( kz - [ t) x T T E y ( z, t ) ! E 0y cos( kz - [ t I ) y
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Graphical representation of the EM wave (I)

One can go from:
T T E x ( z, t ) ! E 0x cos(kz - [ t) x T T E y ( z, t ) ! E 0y cos( kz - [ t I ) y
to the equation of an ellipse (using trigonometric

identities, squaring, adding):
Ex Ey Ex Ey 2 cos I !sin 2 I E E E 0x E 0y 0x 0y
Graphical representation of the EM wave (II)

An ellipse can be represented by 4 quantities: 1. size of minor axis 2. size of major axis 3. orientation (angle) 4. sense (CW, CCW) Light can be represented by 4 quantities...
Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization
Vertically polarized light

T T E x ( z, t ) ! E 0x cos(kz - [ t) x T T E y ( z, t ) ! E 0y cos( kz - [ t I ) y
If there is no amplitude in x (E0x = 0), there is only one component, in y (vertical).
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Polarization at 45 (I)
T T E x ( z, t ) ! E 0x cos( kz - [ t) x T T E y ( z, t ) ! E 0y cos(kz - [ t I ) y
If there is no phase difference (I=0) and E0x = E0y, then Ex = Ey
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Polarization at 45 (II)
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Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization
Circular polarization (I)

T T E x ( z, t ) ! E 0x cos( kz - [ t) x T T E y ( z, t ) ! E 0y cos(kz - [ t I ) y
If the phase difference is I= 90 and E0x = E0y then: Ex / E0x = cos 5 , Ey / E0y = sin 5 and we get the equation of a circle:
Ex Ey ! cos25 sin 25 ! 1 E E 0x 0y
Circular polarization (II)
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Circular polarization (III)
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Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization... see it now?
Circular polarization (IV)
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Part I: Polarization states, elliptical polarization
Elliptical polarization
Linear + circular polarization = elliptical polarization
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Part I: Polarization states, unpolarized light
Unpolarized light
(natural light)
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A cool Applet
Electromagnetic Wave
Location: http://www.uno.edu/~jsulliva/java/EMWave.html
Part II: Stokes parameters and Mueller matrices

Stokes parameters, Stokes vector Stokes parameters for linear and circular polarization Stokes parameters and polarization P Mueller matrices, Mueller calculus Jones formalism
Part II: Stokes parameters
Stokes parameters
A tiny itsy-bitsy little bit of history... 1669: Bartholinus discovers double refraction in calcite 17th 19th centuries: Huygens, Malus, Brewster, Biot, Fresnel and Arago, Nicol... 19th century: unsuccessful attempts to describe unpolarized light in terms of amplitudes 1852: Sir George Gabriel Stokes took a very different approach and discovered that polarization can be described in terms of observables using an experimental definition
Stokes parameters (I)

The polarization ellipse is only valid at a given instant of time (function of time):
E x (t) E y (t) E x (t) E y (t) 2 2 cos !sin E (t) E (t) E 0x (t) E 0y (t) 0x 0y
To get the Stokes parameters, do a time average (integral over time) and a little bit of algebra...
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Stokes parameters (II)

described in terms of the electric field
2 0x
E
2 2 0y
E
2 0x
E
2 2 0y
2E
0x
E 0ycos
! 2E
2
0x
E 0ysin
The 4 Stokes parameters are:
2 2 S0 ! I ! E 0x E 0y 2 2 S1 ! Q ! E 0x E 0y
S2 ! U ! 2 E 0x E 0y cos S3 ! V ! 2 E 0x E 0ysin
Stokes parameters (III)

described in geometrical terms
a2 I 2 Q a cos 2 F cos 2J ! 2 U a cos 2 F sin 2J V a 2 sin 2 F
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Part II: Stokes parameters, Stokes vectors
Stokes vector
The Stokes parameters can be arranged in a Stokes vector:
2 2 I E 0x E 0y 2 Q E 2 E 0y 0x ! U 2 E E cos 0x 0y V 2 E E sin 0x 0y
intensity I0r I 90r ! I 45r I r 135 I RCP ILCP

Q { 0, U { 0, V ! 0 Q ! 0, U ! 0, V { 0 I 2 ! Q2 U 2 V 2 I 2 " Q2 U 2 V2 Q!U!V!0
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Linear polarization Circular polarization Fully polarized light Partially polarized light Unpolarized light
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Pictorial representation of the Stokes parameters
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Part II: Stokes parameters, examples
Stokes vectors for linearly polarized light

LHP light LVP light +45 light -45 light
1 1 I0 0 0
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1 1 I0 0 0
1 0 I0 1 0
1 0 I0 1 0
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Part II: Stokes parameters, examples
Stokes vectors for circularly polarized light

RCP light LCP light
1 0 I0 0 1
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1 0 I0 0 1
Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments 26
(Q,U) to (P,5)
In the case of linear polarization (V=0):
Q2 U 2 P! I
5! 1 U arctan 2 Q
Q ! P cos 25
U ! P sin 25
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Part II: Stokes parameters, Mueller matrices
Mueller matrices
If light is represented by Stokes vectors, optical components are then described with Mueller matrices: [output light] = [Muller matrix] [input light]
I' m11 m12 Q' m21 m22 ! U' m31 m32 V' m 41 m42
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m13 m23 m33 m43
m14 I m24 Q m34 U m44 V

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Mueller calculus (I)
Element 1
Element 2
Element 3
M1
M2 I = M3 M2 M1 I
M3
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Mueller calculus (II)

Mueller matrix M of an optical component with Mueller matrix M rotated by an angle E: M = R(- E) M R(E)
0 1 0 cos 2E R(E ) ! 0 sin 2E 0 0
with:
0 sin 2E cos 2E 0 0 0 0 1
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Part II: Stokes parameters, Jones formalism, not that important here...
Jones formalism
Stokes vectors and Mueller matrices cannot describe interference effects. If the phase information is important (radioastronomy, masers...), one has to use the Jones formalism, with complex vectors and Jones matrices: Jones vectors to describe the Jones matrices to represent polarization of light: optical components:
T T E x (t) J (t) ! T E (t) y
j11 J! j 21
j12 j22
BUT: Jones formalism can only deal with 100% polarization...

Part III: Optical components for polarimetry

Complex index of refraction Polarizers Retarders
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Part III: Optical components
Complex index of refraction

The index of refraction is actually a complex quantity:
m ! n ik
real part optical path length, refraction: speed of light depends on media birefringence: speed of light also depends on P
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imaginary part absorption, attenuation, extinction: depends on media dichroism/diattenuation: also depends on P
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Part III: Optical components, polarizers
Polarizers
Polarizers absorb one component of the polarization but not the other.
The input is natural light, the output is polarized light (linear, circular, elliptical). They work by dichroism, birefringence, reflection, or scattering.
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Wire-grid polarizers (I)

[dichroism] Mainly used in the IR and longer wavelengths Grid of parallel conducting wires with a spacing comparable to the wavelength of observation Electric field vector parallel to the wires is attenuated because of currents induced in the wires
Wide-grid polarizers (II)

[dichroism]
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Dichroic crystals
[dichroism]
Dichroic crystals absorb one polarization state over the other one. Example: tourmaline.
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Part III: Optical components, polarizers Polaroids, like in sunglasses!
Polaroids
[dichroism]
Made by heating and stretching a sheet of PVA laminated to a supporting sheet of cellulose acetate treated with iodine solution (H-type polaroid). Invented in 1928.
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Crystal polarizers (I)

[birefringence]
Optically
anisotropic crystals model:
Mechanical
the crystal is anisotropic, which means that the electrons are bound with different springs depending on the orientation different spring constants gives different propagation speeds, therefore different indices of refraction, therefore 2 output beams
Crystal polarizers (II)

[birefringence]
isotropic crystal (sodium chloride)
anisotropic crystal (calcite)
The 2 output beams are polarized (orthogonally).

Crystal polarizers (IV)

[birefringence] Crystal polarizers used as: Beam displacers,
Beam splitters, Polarizers, Analyzers, ...
Examples: Nicol prism, GlanThomson polarizer, Glan or GlanFoucault prism, Wollaston prism, Thin-film polarizer, ...
Mueller matrices of polarizers (I)

(Ideal) linear polarizer at angle G:
1 1 cos 2 2 sin 2 0
cos 2 cos2 2 sin 2 cos 2 0
sin 2 sin 2 cos 2 sin 2 2 0
0 0 0 0
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Mueller matrices of polarizers (II)

Linear ( Q) polarizer at 0:
1 s1 s1 1 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Linear ( U) polarizer at 0 :
1 0 0. 5 s1 0 0 s 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Circular ( V) polarizer at 0 :
1 0 0.5 0 s1 0 0 s 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
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Mueller calculus with a polarizer

Input light: unpolarized --- output light: polarized
I' 1 Q' 0 U' ! 0.5 1 V' 0
0 1 0 I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 ! 0.5 - I 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total output intensity: 0.5 I
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Part III: Optical components, retarders
Retarders
In retarders, one polarization gets retarded, or delayed, with respect to the other one. There is a final phase difference between the 2 components of the polarization. Therefore, the polarization is changed. Most retarders are based on birefringent materials (quartz, mica, polymers) that have different indices of refraction depending on the polarization of the incoming light.
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Half-Wave plate (I)

Retardation of wave or 180 for one of the polarizations. Used to flip the linear polarization or change the handedness of circular polarization.
Half-Wave plate (II)
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Quarter-Wave plate (I)

Retardation of wave or 90 for one of the polarizations
Used to convert linear polarization to elliptical.

Quarter-Wave plate (II)

Special case: incoming light polarized at 45 with respect to the retarders axis
Conversion from linear to circular polarization (vice versa)

Mueller matrix of retarders (I)

Retarder of retardance X and position angle ]:
0 1 0 G H cos4 0 H sin4 0 sin sin2 1 with : G ! cos 1 2

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0 H sin4 G H cos4 sin cos2
0 sin sin2 sin cos2 cos
1 and H ! cos 1 2

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Mueller matrix of retarders (II)

Half-wave oriented at 0 or 90 Half-wave oriented at 45
1 0 k 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 k 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
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Mueller matrix of retarders (III)

Quarter-wave oriented at 0 Quarter-wave oriented at 45
1 0 k 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 k 0 0 0 s1
0 0 O 1 1 0 0 0 0
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Mueller calculus with a retarder

Input light linear polarized (Q=1) Quarter-wave at +45 Output light circularly polarized (V=1)
1 0 I' 0 0 Q' U' ! k 0 0 0 1 V'

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0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 ! k 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
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(Back to polarizers, briefly)
Circular polarizers
Input light: unpolarized --Output light: circularly polarized Made of a linear polarizer glued to a quarter-wave plate oriented at 45 with respect to one another.
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Achromatic retarders (I)

Retardation depends on wavelength Achromatic retarders: made of 2 different materials with
opposite variations of index of refraction as a function of wavelength
Pancharatnam achromatic retarders: made of 3

identical plates rotated w/r one another
Superachromatic retarders: 3 pairs of quartz and MgF2

plates
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Achromatic retarders (II)

X=140-220
not very achromatic!
X= 177-183
much better!
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Retardation on total internal reflection

Total internal reflection produces retardation (phase shift)
In this case, retardation is very achromatic since it only depends on the refractive index Application: Fresnel rhombs
Fresnel rhombs
Quarter-wave and half-wave rhombs are achieved with 2 or 4 reflections
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Other retarders
Soleil-Babinet: variable retardation to better than 0.01 waves Nematic liquid crystals... Liquid crystal variable retarders... Ferroelectric liquid crystals... Piezo-elastic modulators... Pockels and Kerr cells...
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Part IV: Polarimeters
Polaroid-type polarimeters Dual-beam polarimeters
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Part IV: Polarimeters, polaroid-type
Polaroid-type polarimeter
for linear polarimetry (I) Use a linear polarizer (polaroid) to measure linear polarization ... [another cool applet]
Location: http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/lens.html
Polarization percentage and position angle:
I max I min P! I max I min 5 ! 5( I ! I max )

N. Manset / CFHT Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments
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for linear polarimetry (II) Move the polaroid to 2 positions, 0 and 45 (to measure Q, then U) Advantage: very simple to make Disadvantage: half of the light is cut out Other disadvantages: non-simultaneous measurements, cross-talk...
for circular polarimetry Polaroids are not sensitive to circular polarization, so convert circular polarization to linear first, by using a quarter-wave plate Polarimeter now uses a quarter-wave plate and a polaroid Same disadvantages as before
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Part IV: Polarimeters, dual-beam type
Dual-beam polarimeters
Principle
Instead of cutting out one polarization and keeping the other one (polaroid), split the 2 polarization states and keep them both Use a Wollaston prism as an analyzer Disadvantages: need 2 detectors (PMTs, APDs) or an array; end up with 2 pixels with different gain Solution: rotate the Wollaston or keep it fixed and use a half-wave plate to switch the 2 beams
Switching beams
Unpolarized light: two beams have identical intensities whatever the prisms position if the 2 pixels have the same gain
( 7
To compensate different gains, switch the 2 beams and average the 2 measurements
Switching beams by rotating the prism
rotate by 180
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Switching beams using a wave plate
Rotated by 45
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Dual-beam polarimeter for circular

polarization - Wollaston and quarter-wave plate
The measurements V/I is:
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Switch the beams to compensate the gain effects
Part IV: Polarimeters, example of circular polarimeter
A real circular polarimeter

Semel, Donati, Rees (1993)
Quarter-wave plate, rotated at -45 and +45
Analyser: double calcite crystal
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free from gain (g) and atmospheric transmission (E) variation effects
First measurement with quarter-wave plate at -45, signal S1l , S1r in the (r)ight and (l)eft beams: Second measurement with quarter-wave plate at +45, l r signal in the (r)ight and (l)eft beams: S2 , S2 Measurements of the signals:
S ! g E1 ( I1 V1 ) S ! g E1 ( I1 V1 )
l 1 l r 1 r l r S2 ! g lE 2 ( I 2 V2 ) S2 ! g rE 2 ( I 2 V2 )
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free from gain and atmospheric transmission variation effects
Build a ratio of measured signals which is free of gain and variable atmospheric transmission effects:
1 I 2V1 I1V2 1 S1l S2r F ! l r 1 ! 2 I I I V I V VV 4 S2 S1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 V1 V2 F } for V 2 I1 I 2

average of the 2 measurements
Part IV: Polarimeters, summary
Polarimeters - Summary
2 types:
polaroid-type: easy to make but light is lost, and affected
by variable atmospheric transmission
dual-beam type: no light lost but affected by gain

differences and variable transmission problems
Linear polarimetry:
analyzer, rotatable 2 positions minimum analyzer + half-wave plate
Circular polarimetry:
analyzer + quarter-wave plate
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1 position minimum
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Part V: ESPaDOnS
Optical components of the polarimeter part :
Wollaston prism: analyses the polarization and separates the 2 (linear!) orthogonal polarization states Retarders, 3 Fresnel rhombs:
Two half-wave plates to switch the beams around Quarter-wave plate to do circular polarimetry
Part V: ESPaDOnS, circular polarimetry mode
ESPaDOnS: circular polarimetry

Fixed quarter-wave rhomb Rotating bottom half-wave, at 22.5 increments Top half-wave rotates continuously at about 1Hz to average out linear polarization when measuring circular polarization
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ESPaDOnS: circular polarimetry of circular polarization
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analyzer
half-wave 22.5 positions flips polarization gain, transmission
quarterwave fixed circular to linear

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ESPaDOnS: circular polarimetry of

(unwanted) linear polarization
circular part
analyzer
half-wave 22.5 positions gain, transmission
goes through not analyzed and adds same intensities to both beams linear part is analyzed!
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quarterwave fixed linear to elliptical
Add a
rotating half-wave to spread out the unwanted signal
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Part V: ESPaDOnS, linear polarimetry
ESPaDOnS: linear polarimetry
Half-Wave rhombs positioned at 22.5 increments Quarter-Wave fixed
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Part V: ESPaDOnS, linear polarimetry
ESPaDOnS: linear polarimetry

Half-Wave rhombs positioned as 22.5 increments
First position gives Q Second position gives U Switch beams for gain and atmosphere effects
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Quarter-Wave fixed
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Part V: ESPaDOnS, summary
ESPaDOnS - Summary
ESPaDOnS can do linear and circular polarimetry (quarter-wave plate) Beams are switched around to do the measurements, compensate for gain and atmospheric effects Fesnel rhombs are very achromatic
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Credits for pictures and movies

Christoph Kellers home page his 5 lectures http://www.noao.edu/noao/staff/keller/ Basic Polarisation techniques and devices, Meadowlark Optics Inc. http://www.meadowlark.com/ Optics, E. Hecht and Astronomical Polarimetry, J. Tinbergen Planets, Stars and Nebulae Studied With Photopolarimetry, T. Gehrels Circular polarization movie
http://www.optics.arizona.edu/jcwyant/JoseDiaz/Polarization-Circular.htm
Unpolarized light movie

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/polarization/polarizationII.html
Reflection of wave http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/fix.html ESPaDOnS web page and documents

References/Further reading
On the Web
Very short and quick introduction, no equation
http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/~manset/PolarIntro_eng.html
Easy fun page with Applets, on polarizing filters

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/polarization/polarizationI.html
Polarization short course

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/light/u12l1e.html
Instrumentation for Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry, a series of 5 lectures given at the

IAC Winter School on Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry, November 2000
http://www.noao.edu/noao/staff/keller/lectures/index.html
Polarization basics
Polarized Light, D. Goldstein excellent book, easy read, gives a lot of insight, highly recommended Undergraduate textbooks, either will do:
Optics, E. Hecht Waves, F. S. Crawford, Berkeley Physics Course vol. 3
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Astronomy, easy/intermediate
Astronomical Polarimetry, J. Tinbergen
instrumentation-oriented
La polarisation de la lumire et l'observation astronomique, J.-L. Leroy astronomy-oriented Planets, Stars and Nebulae Studied With Photopolarimetry, T. Gehrels old but classic 3 papers by K. Serkowski instrumentation-oriented
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Astronomy, advanced Introduction to Spectropolarimetry, J.C. del Toro Iniesta radiative transfer ouch! Astrophysical Spectropolarimetry, Trujillo-Bueno et al. (eds) applications to
astronomy
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Polarization of Light: from Basics to Instruments

(in less than 100 slides)

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Different polarization states of light

Part I: Polarization states

Light as an electromagnetic wave

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states

Mathematical description of the EM wave

Light wave that propagates in the z direction:

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states

Graphical representation of the EM wave (I)

to the equation of an ellipse (using trigonometric

Part I: Polarization states

Graphical representation of the EM wave (II)

Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization

Vertically polarized light

If there is no amplitude in x (E0x = 0), there is only one component, in y (vertical).

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization

If there is no phase difference (I=0) and E0x = E0y, then Ex = Ey

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, linear polarization

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization

Circular polarization (I)

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization

Circular polarization (II)

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization

Circular polarization (III)

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, circular polarization... see it now?

Circular polarization (IV)

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, elliptical polarization

Linear + circular polarization = elliptical polarization

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states, unpolarized light

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part I: Polarization states

Part II: Stokes parameters and Mueller matrices

Part II: Stokes parameters

Part II: Stokes parameters

Stokes parameters (I)

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part II: Stokes parameters

Stokes parameters (II)

The 4 Stokes parameters are:

Part II: Stokes parameters

Stokes parameters (III)

a2 I 2 Q a cos 2 F cos 2J ! 2 U a cos 2 F sin 2J V a 2 sin 2 F

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part II: Stokes parameters, Stokes vectors

intensity I 0r  I 90r ! I 45r  I r 135 I RCP  I LCP

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part II: Stokes parameters

Pictorial representation of the Stokes parameters

Part II: Stokes parameters, examples

Stokes vectors for linearly polarized light

Polarization of Light: Basics to Instruments

Part II: Stokes parameters, examples

Stokes vectors for circularly polarized light

intensity I0r I 90r ! I 45r I r 135 I RCP ILCP

I' 1 Q' 0 U' ! 0.5 1 V' 0

0 1 0 G H cos4 0 H sin4 0 sin sin2 1 with : G ! cos 1 2

0 H sin4 G H cos4 sin cos2

0 sin sin2 sin cos2 cos