Mechanical actuators

ACTUATION SYSTEM:
The actuation systems are the elements of the control system and they are responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor into a controlling action on a machine or device. Actuators produce physical changes such as linear and angular displacement.

There are four types of actuators. 1. Mechanical actuators. 2. Electrical actuators. 3. Hydraulic actuators. 4. Pneumatic actuators.

Example:
In a CNC milling machine, there may be an electrical signal output from the CNC controller to move the milling table in the x direction for a certain length. There you need an actuation system

MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Mechanical systems :- Mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they transform motion from one form to other form. They might, for example, transform linear motion into rotational motion, or motion in one direction into a motion in a direction at right angles, or perhaps a linear motion into rotary motion, as in the internal combustion engine the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted into rotary motion of the crank and hence the drive shaft.

 Mechanical elements can include the use of gears, rack-and-pinion, chains, belt drives; etc rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotation motion. Parallel shaft gears might be used to reduce a shaft speed. Bevel gears might be used for the transmission of rotary motion through 90. A toothed belt or chain drive might be used to transform rotary motion about one axis to motion about another . Cams and linkages can be used to obtain motions which are prescribed to vary in a particular manner.

 Many of the actions which previously were obtained by use of mechanisms are, however, often nowadays are obtained by the use of microprocessor systems. For example rotating shafts were previously used for machines in order to give a timed sequence. Such as opening a valve to let water into the drum, switching a heater on/off, etc. Modern washing machines use a microprocessor based system with the microprocessor programmed to switch on outputs in the required sequence. Mechanisms still, however, have a role in mechatronics systems. For example, the mechatronic system in use in an automatic camera for adjusting the aperture for correct exposures involves a mechanism for adjusting the size of the diaphragm

 While electronics might now be used often for many functions that previously were fulfilled by mechanisms, mechanisms might still be used to provide such functions as: 1. Force amplification, e.g. that given by levers. 2 Change of speed, e.g. that given by gears. 3 Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another, e.g. a timing belt. 4. Particular types of motion, e.g. that given by a quick-return mechanism.

Gears
Rotary motion can be transferred from one shaft to another by a pair of rolling cylinders however; there is a possibility of slip. The transfer of the motion between the two cylinders depends on the frictional forces between the two surfaces in contact. Slip can be prevented by the addition of meshing teeth to the two cylinders and the result is then a pair of meshed gear wheels.

 Gears can be used for the transmission of rotary motion between parallel shafts Fig. (a) and for shafts which have axes inclined to one another Fig. (b). the term bevel gear is used when the lines of the shafts intersect, as illustrated in Fig. (b). When two gears are in mesh, the larger gear wheel is often called the spur or crown wheel and the smaller one the pinion.

 Gears for use with parallel shafts may have axial teeth with the teeth cut along axial lines parallel to the axis of the shaft Fig. (a). Such gears are then termed spur gears. Alternatively they may have helical teeth with the teeth being cut on a helix Fig. (b) and are then termed helical gears. Helical gears have the advantage that there is a gradual engagement of any individual tooth and consequently there is a smoother drive and generally prolonged life of the gears. however, the inclination of the teeth to the axis of the shaft results in an axial force component on the shaft bearing. This can be overcome by using double helical teeth.(fig.c)

Gear trains
Gear trains are mechanisms that are very widely used to transfer and transform rotational motion. They are used when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is needed. For example, the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with the engine power available.

Gear trains
The term gear train is used to describe a series of intermeshed gear wheels. The term simple gear train is used for a system where each shaft carries only one gear wheel, as in Fig. For such a gear train, the overall gear ratio is the ratio of the angular velocities at the input and output shafts and is thus A/ B

 Consider a simple gear train consisting of wheels A, B and C, as in Fig. with A having 9 teeth and C having 27 teeth. Then, as the angular velocity of a wheel is inversely proportional to the number of teeth on the wheel, the gear ratio is 27/9 = 3. The effect of wheel B is purely to change the direction of rotation of the output wheel compared with what it would have been with just the two wheels A and C intermeshed. The intermediate wheel, B, is termed the idler wheel.

 The term compound gear train is used to describe a gear train when two wheels are mounted on a common shaft. Figure (a) and (b) shows two examples of such a compound gear train. The gear train in Fig. (b) enables the input and output shafts to be in line.

 When two gear wheels are mounted on the same shaft they have the same angular velocity. Thus, for both of the compound gear trains in Fig. B The overall gear ratio G is thus

Ratchet and Pawl

Ratchets can be used to lock a mechanism when it is holding a load. Figure shows a ratchet and pawl. The mechanism consists of a wheel, called a ratchet, with saw-shaped teeth which engage with an arm called a pawl. The arm is pivoted and can move back and forth to engage the wheel. The shape of the teeth is such that rotation can occur in only one direction. Rotation of the ratchet wheel in a clockwise direction is prevented by the pawl and can only take place when the pawl is lifted. The pawl is normally spring loaded to ensure that it automatically engages with the ratchet teeth. Thus a winch used to wind up a cable on a drum may have a ratchet and pawl to prevent the cable unwinding from the drum when the handle is released.

The rack and pinion

Another form of gear is the rack and pinion (Figure). This transforms either linear motion to rotational motion or rotational motion to linear motion.

Belt drives
Belt drives are essentially just a pair of rolling cylinders, as described in Fig. with the motion of one cylinder being transferred to the other by a belt. Belt drives use the friction that develops between the pulleys attached to the shafts and the belt around the arc of contact in order to transmit a torque. Since the transfer relies on frictional forces then slip can occur. The transmitted torque is due to the differences in tension that occur in the belt during operation. This difference results in a tight side and a slack side for the belt. If the tension on the tight side is T1, and that on the slack side T2. then with pulley A in Fig. as the driver: Torque on A = (T 1 T2)ra Where rais the radius of pulley A. For the driven pulley B we have:Torque on B = (T 1 T2)rb

 Where rb is the radius of pulley B. Since the power transmitted is the product of the torque and the angular velocity, and since the angular velocity is v/ra for pulley A and v/rb for pulley B, where v is the belt speed, then for either pulley we have: Power = (T1 - T2)v

 The belt drive shown in Fig. gives the driven wheel rotating in the same direction as the driver wheel. Figure a & b shows two types of reversing drives. With both forms of drive, both sides of the belt come into contact with the wheels and so V-belts or timing belts cannot be used.
a. Open belt drive

b. Crossed belt drive

Types of belts The four main types of belts (Fig.) are: 1. Flat: The belt has a rectangular crosssection. Such a drive has an efficiency of about 98% and produces little noise. They can transmit power over long distances between pulley centres crowned pulleys are used to keep the belts from running off the pullets.

2 Round: The belt has a circular cross-section and is used with grooved pulleys. 3 V-belts: V-belts are used with grooved pulleys and are less efficient than flat belts but a number of them can be used on a single wheel and so give a multiple drive. 4. Timing: Timing belts require toothed wheels, having teeth which fit into the grooves on the wheels. The timing belt, unlike the other belts, does not stretch or slip and consequently transmits power at a constant angular velocity ratio. The teeth make it possible for the belt to be run at slow or fast speeds.

Chains
Slip can be prevented by the use of chains which lock into teeth on the rotating cylinders to give the equivalent of a pair of intermeshing gear wheels. A chain drive has the same relationship for gear ratio as a simple gear train. The drive mechanism used with a bicycle is an example of a chain drive. Chains enable a number of shafts to be driven by a single wheel and so give a multiple drive. They are not as quiet as timing belts but can be used for larger torques.

Bearings
Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another, either by rotating or sliding, the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and results in wear. The function of a bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy the movement of one part relative to another.

 Of particular importance is the need to give suitable support to rotating shafts, i.e. support radial loads. The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to withstand forces along the axis of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily rotation.

Plain journal bearings

Journal bearings are used to support rotating shafts which are loaded in a radial direction. The term journal is used for a shaft. The bearing basically consists of an insert of some suitable material which is fitted between the shaft and the support (Fig. ). Rotation of the shaft results in its surface sliding over that of the bearing surface.

 The insert may be a white metal, aluminum alloy, copper alloy, bronze or a polymer such as nylon or PTFE. The insert provides lower friction and less wear than if the shaft just rotated in a hole in the support. The bearing may be a dry rubbing bearing or lubricated. Plastics such as nylon and PTFE are generally used without lubrication, the coefficient of friction with such materials being exceptionally low. A widely used bearing material is sintered bronze, This is Bronze with a porous structure which allows it to be impregnated with oil and so the bearing has a `built in' lubricant.

 Hydrodynamic : The hydrodynamic journal bearing consists of the shaft rotating continuously in oil in such a way that it rides on oil and is not supported by metal (Fig.). The load is carried by the pressure generated in the oil as a result of the shaft rotating.

Hydrostatic
A problem with hydrodynamic lubrication is that the shaft only rides on oil when it is rotating and when at rest there is metal tometal contact. To avoid excessive wear at start-up and when there is only a low load, oil is pumped into the load-bearing area at a high-enough pressure to lift the shaft Off the metal when at rest.

3. Solid-film This is a coating of a solid material such as graphite or molybdenum disulphide. 4. Boundary layer This is a thin layer of lubricant which adheres to the surface of the bearing.

Ball and roller bearings

With this type of bearing, the main load is transferred from the rotating shaft to its support by rolling contact rather than sliding contact. A rolling element bearing consists of four main elements: an inner race, an outer race, the rolling element of either balls or rollers, and a cage to keep the rolling elements a part (Fig.). The inner and outer races contain hardened tracks in which the rolling elements roll.

 There are a number of forms of ball bearings: 1. Deep-groove: This is good at withstanding radial loads but is only moderately good for axial loads. It is a versatile bearing which can be used with a wide range of load and speed 2. Filling-slot: This is able to withstand higher radial loads than the deep groove equivalent but cannot be used when there are axial loads. 3. Angular contact: This is good for both radial and axial loads and is better for axial loads than the deep-groove equivalent.

4.Double-row Double-row ball bearings are made in a number of types and are able to withstand higher radial loads than their single-row equivalents. The figure shows a double-row deep-groove ball bearing, there being double-row versions of each of the above singlerow types. 5.Self-aligning Single-row bearings can withstand a small amount of shaft misalignment but where there can be severe misalignment a self-aligning bearing is used. This is able to withstand only moderate radial loads and is fairly poor for axial loads. 6. Thrust grooved race These are designed to withstand axial loads but are not suitable for radial loads.

 There are also a number of forms of roller bearing, the following being common examples: 1. Straight roller This is better for radial loads than the equivalent ball bearing but is not generally suitable for axial loads. They will carry a greater load than ball bearings of the same size because of their greater contact area. However, they are not tolerant of misalignment. 2. Taper rollers This is good for radial loads and good in one direction for axial loads. 3. Needle rollers This has a roller with a high length/diameter ratio and tends to be used in situations where there is insufficient space for the equivalent ball or roller bearing.

Selection of bearings
In general, dry sliding bearings tend to be only used for small diameter shafts with low load and low speed situations, ball and roller bearings, i.e. bearings involving rolling, with a much wider range of diameter shafts and higher load and higher speed, and hydrodynamic bearings for the high loads with large diameter shafts. Figure shows a chart indicating the selection of bearings based on their load-shaft speed characteristics for a number of different diameter shafts. Thus suppose we want a bearing for a 25 mm diameter shaft rotating at 10 rev/s and carrying a radial load of 10 000 N. This is beyond the limit for a dry sliding bearing and is a point on the graph below the line for rolling bearings for such a diameter and speed, hence rolling bearings can be used.

 Failure of ball and roller bearings generally occurs as a result of fatigue. With fatigue failures there is always a scatter of values at which failure of an individual item occurs. The life of a bearing is thus defined as the number of millions of shaft revolutions that 90% of the bearings are expected to exceed before failing. This life L10 depends on the applied load F. For ball bearings the relationship is: where C is a constant for a particular form of bearing. For roller bearings:

 Manufacturers often tabulate data for bearings in terms of the number of hours of life at a particular speed given in units of rev/min. The life in hours = 10 6/(3600 x n/60) x Lo in millions of revs = (16 667/n) x Lo in millions of revs; n is the number of revolutions per minute. For example, a particular ball bearing may be rated as 3000 h at 500 rev/min for a radial loading of 10 kN. This gives L0, as 90 million revs and hence C as 44.8 kN. Thus with a load of, say, 20 kN at 400 rev/min then the life we can expect is 11.2 million revolutions or 468 h. If this is not long enough we need to select a ball bearing with a higher rating.

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