English Literature 11

Henry Fielding (1707-1754)

Born into an aristocratic family in 1707, Fielding pursued studies of the classics and law to the University of Leiden, in Holland. Because of lack of money he was compelled to return to England in 1730 and chose to take up te career of playwright. He wrote over 20 plays, mostly of a satirical nature. However the intriduction of the Licensing Act ended his involvement in the theatre and in order to support his family he took up the career in law.

Works
During the late 1730s and early 1740s he continued to air *his liberal views in satirical articles fro newspapers. He continued to write novels of a primarily satirical nature until 1751 (he had written An Apology for the life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741), a short anonymous parody of Richardson's Pamela). If both Defoe and Richardson attempted to hide fictional nature of their work under the guise of memoirs or letters, Fielding took a very different attitude. Whilst containing familiar picaresque elements proposing the theme of the journey set among the streets of XVIII century England) his works representd a new departure in terms of prose fiction . In no way do they constitute an effort to disguise literary artefact as fact. The reader is never under the illusion that what he is reading is anything other than a work of art.

*to air: esporre

Addessing the reader.

In Tom Jones (1749), for example, the reader is addressed directly by a highly self-conscious narrative persona, both througout the narrative and at the beginning of each the eighteen books of the novel. Together with the spaculations on how the story may proceed and commentaries on what had already happened, he invites the reader to consider the different aspects of the novel.

Fieldings narrative persona

Fieldings narrative persona, is a kind of literary guide and travelling companion who takes us behind the scenes to explain and elucidate upon what happens in the narrativeThe tone is conversational, and ironic setting up an intimacy with the reader (even if the narrative authenticity suffers as a consequence).

Tere can be few doubts that Fielding attached less importance than Richardson to the growth and development of individual characters in his novels, his principal object being the intricate unravelling of the plot. In true classical fashion, an epic plot rddled with surprises, coincidences and elements of the mock heroic* necessarily implied a diminished concern fro the psychological subtleties* of changing individuals. We are not allowes to witness internal thoughts and axieties which was Richardsons epistolary method. *mock-epic, also called mock-heroic, form of satire that adapts the elevated heroic style of the classical epic poem to a trivial subject *mock: finto *subtleties: finezza/complessit

I describe not men but manners, not an individual but a species Tom Jones
His novels certainly contain a wider variety of characters that those of Richardson: they are drawn from all classes, and his extensive panorama constitutes a wide-ranging picture of XVIII century England. Where psychological analysis is lacking, it is the omniscient narrator with his ironi observations, warnings, reflections, and anticipations who compensates. As for plot, Fielding has few rivals. His architectonic majesty of his novels marked a greta advance on the more rudimentary sequences of events to be found in Defoe or the more limited consideration of a single story present in Richardson.

Moral attitude
In terms of attitudes to morality, Fieldings works represented abreak with the more Puritan concerns of his immediate predecessors. His aristocratic origins perhaps explain his more tolerant and liberal-minded attitude towards sexual promiscuosness in his protagonists. He accepts that there are no wholly good or wholly bad characters in the world even if virtues such as bravery, loyalty and benevolence are of great importance.

His frank generosity moved from the belief that men are naturally inclined towards goodness and that vice can be defeated by virtue. He was also convinced that men can defeat the unpleasant espects of immorality through laughter. He writes in his opening dedication of Tom Jone to Geroge Lyttleton: I have employed all the wit and humour of which I am master in the following history; wherein in I have endeavoured to laugh* mankind out of their favourite follies and vices *to laugh out: ridere fragorosamente

Apart from his engagement in journalism (The True Patriot) and in drama (he wrote over 20 plays including comedies, farces and satires), he was a great novelist. - Shamela (1741) - The History and Adventures of Joseph Andrews (1742), which can be considered his forst real novel, attempting to parodize again the hypocritical moral values of the middle classes depicted by Richardson. - The Life of Jonathan Wild, the Great (1743), a mock-heroic satire of political opportunism and ruthless* morality. The novel deals with the life of the infamous highwayman*, Jonathan Wild, who was hanged in 1725. - Tom Jones (1749), his masterpiece - Amelia (17519, a novel concerned wit social problems *ruthless: spietato *highwayman: bandito di strada

Tom Jones (18 books)

The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling is a novel that centers on a likable hero who romps through* a series of adventures while growing up and pursuing the girl he idolizes. The novel falls into the general category of comedy because of its humor and its happy ending. It contains elements of the following genres: Bildungsroman: Novel about the coming of age, or maturation, of the main character. In Tom Jones, the title character undergoes character development while growing up in the country, experiencing adventures while traveling, and searching in London for the young lady he loves. Epic Journey: Long narrative about the main character's struggles and adventures while traveling from one place to another. Tom Jones is a long narrative about the struggles and adventures of a traveling protagonist. Mock Epic: Literary work that uses the elevated style of a classical epic (such as Homer's Odyssey or Virgil's Aeneid) to describe a trivial or insignificant event. The result is a comic or satirical passage. Romance: (1) Narrative about the adventures of a chivalric hero who often is in love with a noble lady; (2) narrative that emphasizes love. Tom Jones battles villains, rescues a damsel in distress, and is in love with a noble lady. Picaresque novel: Novel about the episodic adventures of a vagabond hero (a picaro). Tom Jones experiences many episodic adventures while traveling from one place to another. *to romp through: eseguire agevolmenr/ scatenarsi

Henry Fielding presented the novel in three main sections with action taking place in the first half of the eighteenth century. The first section centers on life in the country at the estates of Squire Allworthy and Squire Western in Somersetshire (Somerset County) in southwestern England. In this section, the protagonist, Tom Jones, grows from infant foundling into a teenager who falls in love with the beautiful daughter of Squire Western.

The second part of the novel takes place along roads, at inns, and in other locales between Somersetshire and London in the middle and late 1740s. In this section, the protagonist experiences many episodic adventures involving a diverse cast of characters that include a woman in distress, soldiers on the march, gypsies, untrustworthy lawyers, puppeteers*and an impoverished robber. *puppeteer: burattinaio

The action in the third part takes place mainly in London, where the title character searches for his beloved, fights a duel, has encounters with a possessive seductress, goes to jail, gains his freedom, and reunites with his beloved. This section ends when the principal characters return to Somersetshire.

Epic Journey Toward Manhood

The central theme of the novel is the amusing epic journey of Tom Jones toward maturation, self-realization, and union with his beloved. Jones begins his journey as a mischievous* adolescent, continues it as an adventurous teenager, and concludes it as a mature and morally upright adult who settles down as a husband and father. The hero confronts perils and undergoes trials before completing his journey. In this respect, Fielding's hero is like the hero of Homers Odyssey, the great epic poem recounting the adventures of Odysseus on his way home after the Trojan War However, There is an important difference, however, between the recounting of Tom's journey and the recounting of the journey of Odysseus: The former is comical and playful; the latter is deadly serious, with an elevated tone. *mischievous: monello/vivace

Importance of Character vs Family Origin

In spite of the faults that Tom exhibits during his adolescent and teenage escapades, he is always trustworthy, and charitable. He is also resourceful and courageous. Nevertheless, Thwackum, Square, and many other adults in his life look down on him because he was born out of wedlock and is thought to be the bastard son of a servant girl. Many of those with a pedigree, on the other hand, lack the integrity of Tom.

Coincidences
Many of life's turning points result from coincidences. In Tom Jones, coincidences occur frequently (perhaps too frequently), and often they are indeed turning points

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

Born in Ireland, at university (Cambridge) he suffered from a haemorrhage of the lungs that was the first sign of the ill health which was to dog him throughout his brief life. In addition to writing Sterne was also an accomplished painter and musician. Affected by tuberculosis he decided to go and live in France in order to recover his health and continue his popular comic novel Thristam Shandy (1760). His only other noteworthy publication was A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768), based on his lenghty tour of Italy and France in 1765.

Works
It is on Tristam Shandy that his reputation largerly rests. This work of eccentric genius brought Sterne fame and fortune both in England and France but, interestingly enough, it was not until the twentieth century that Sterne was reinstated amonge the greats of XVIII century fiction. Indeed, Tristam Shandy remains the most modern of eighteenth-century novels

An anti-novel
This novel, or anti-novel as some critics prefre to call it, is divided up into nine volumes, wchich where written over a seven year period beginning in 1760. It is narrated in the first person singular by Tristam Shandy himself.

Plot overview
The action covered in The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman spans the years 1680-1766. Sterne also subordinates the basic plot framework by weaving together a number of different stories, as well as such disparate materials as essays, sermons, and legal documents. There are, nevertheless, two clearly discernible narrative lines in the book. 1) The first is the plot sequence that includes Tristram's conception, birth, christening*, and accidental circumcision. *christening: battesimo

First sequence
1) The first is the plot sequence that includes Tristram's conception, birth, christening*, and accidental circumcision (when Susannah let a window sash* fall as he urinated out of the window because his chamberpot was missing). It takes six volumes to cover this chain of events The story occurs as a series of accidents, all of which seem calculated to confound Walter Shandy's hopes and expectations for his son. The manner of his conception is the first disaster, followed by the flattening of his nose at birth, a misunderstanding in which he is given the wrong name (according to his father a person's name exerted enormous influence over that person's nature and fortunes. In view of the previous accidents, Tristram's father decreed that the boy would receive an especially auspicious name, Trismegistus. Susannah mangled* the name in conveying it to the curate, and the child was christened Tristram). Indeed, the catastrophes that befall* Tristram are actually relatively trivial; only in the context of Walter Shandy's eccentric, pseudo-scientific theories do they become calamities.

*christening: battesimo *sash: telaio della finestra *to mangle: storpiare *TO BEFALL, BEFELL, BEFALLEN: accadere

Second Sequence
The second major plot consists of the fortunes of Tristram's Uncle Toby. Most of the details of this story are concentrated in the final third of the novel, although they are alluded to from the very beginning. Toby receives a wound to the groin* while in the army, and it takes him four years to recover. When he is able to move around again, he retires to the country with the idea of constructing a scaled replica of the scene of the battle in which he was injured. He becomes obsessed with re-enacting those battles, as well as with the whole history and theory of fortification and defense. *groin: inguine

Overall analysis and themes

The most striking formal and technical characteristics of Tristram Shandy are its unconventional time scheme and its selfdeclared digressive-progressive style. Sterne, through his fictional authorcharacter Tristram, defiantly refuses to present events in their proper chronological order. Again and again in the course of the novel Tristram defends his authorial right to move backward and forward in time as he chooses.

By fracturing the sequence of the stories he tells and interjecting them with chains of associated ideas, memories, and anecdotes. Tristram allows thematic significance to emerge out of surprising juxtapositions between seemingly unrelated events. The author's own ideas and interpretations are presumably just as singular, and so the novel remains above all a catalogue of the "opinions" of Tristram Shandy.

Idiosyncratic behaviour.
In its apparent lack of a real plot Sternes novel represented a new departure in fiction. Beign a great novelist he demostrated what the novel was not capable of doing that human nature and the workings of individual mind can never be fully known. Sterne was convinced that the minds workings are essetially irrational and that individual mental behaviour is in some measure eccentric or at least idiosyncratic*. *idiosyncrasy: A structural or behavioral characteristic peculiar to an individual or group /A physiological or temperamental peculiarity

time
In contrast to conventional, the individual mind constructs its own values of time. Sternes first person narrative is again the very embodiment of the caos which such conclusions entail: Tristam moves freely from present to past and back again in a process which is never ending and which calls into question the validity of the chronological sequencing of events typical of most previous ficyional narratives

Unusual devices
A mention must be made of the unusual devices employed by Sterne in his novel. Chapters varying in lenght from single sentences to paragraphs are interspersed with whole sections written in French and Latin. Some pages are completely blacked out and other left blank. In the latter case the reader is actually asked by Tristam to fill in the page with his own personal vision to collaborate actively in te construction of the text. Where the word is considered inadequate as a means of rendering ideas, Tristam intervenes with personalized hand drawings.

From Chapter XI

Beyond the Eighteenth century

Drama: the blossoming of the novel meant that the major talents were diverted away from the theatre. Poetry: a great poet asuch as the English Alexander Pope represneted one of the most importat voice as regarded poetry. However, poetry was generally considered as a craft, produced by: - The guidelines of great thinkers and artists of ancient Greece and Rome - - principles codified by French and Italian critics SO: English poets were skilled craftsmen well versed in his trade than intuitive visionaries.

An age dominated by strong belief in the rational and intellectual powers of man demanded correctness, order, sobriety from its poets. So poetry dealt with civilization and social relationships as opposed to the introspective meditations of the feeling individual. It is perhaps no surprise then that satire, the so called ally of civilization took a leading role in XVIII century poetic output. In fact much satirical poetry of the period fulfils a moralizing didactic function.

The decline of the lyric was a clear indicator that the nature and function of poetry was increasingly a social concern. The function of wit was no longer to surprise the reader / listener. Wit or fancy as it became known, was to be tempered by all important faculty of judgment. Literary decorum was to be based on a new form of appropriateness . A fresh clarity came to characterize XVIII century verse.

A language really used by men

In 1798 William Wordsworths declaration that poetry sgoul be written in a selection of language really used by men sounded really revolutionary and it constituted a systematic rejection of the poetic diction which still remained influential at the end of the century.

Despite the growing importance of blank verse, the heroic couplet remained the staple* form of XVIII century versification. In the hands of more gifted poets such as Samuel Johnson and Alexander Pope it was employed with great skill and variety but as the century wore on* and the poetic sensibility began to change writer felt themselves trapped with such medium. *to wear: indossare / to wear on: trascorrere

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

Samuel Johnson was an oft-quoted biographer, poet and lexicographer and he wrote A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), published in two folio volumes. In his time it was the most comprehensive English language dictionary ever compiled and remained the standard reference for over a century. The first edition included a Grammar and History of the English Language and thousands of quotations from such authors as John Dryden, William Shakespeare and John Milton to illustrate the use of the over 42,000 words it containedmany more were added in subsequent editions. At a time when literacy rates were improving and the realm of print media was expanding at a rapid pace, pamphlets, newspapers and magazines were becoming available at a reasonable cost.

So, standard spellings, uses and meanings of words such as Cough: A convulsion of the lungs. It is pronounced coff was required among printing houses. Johnson was hired by a group of London booksellers and paid a little over 1500 to create this ambitious work. The undertaking took almost nine years to complete.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

Pope was born into a Catholic family . He suffered prejudice all his life: he could not attend university or hold public office and the sense of being an outseder (in theory Catholics could not live within ten miles of London) was enhanced by his physical defects: he was practically a dwarf and a tubercular disease during adolescence left him deformed.

He showed precocious talent in his early poetry:

- Pastorals (1709) - An Essay on Criticism (1711) - The Rape of the Lock (1714)

The Scribleurs Club

He was one of the member of The Scribleurs Club ( a club which included Swift) made up of Tory wits. Together they produced a series of papers supposedly written by Martin Scibleurs, but which were in reality a harsh satire on false learning and pedantry. His trasnlation of Homers Iliad made him a rich man.

The literary milieu at the time was extremely competitive: vitriolic attacks on ones rivals were the order of the day. Pope in fact devoted a whole work, The Dunciad (1728) to settle his scores with critics and other figures who had illtreated him. Anyway he found still room for more contemplative work such as the Essay on man (1733-1734)

In later years Pope became incresingly dissatisfied with the political climate and his bitin satire made him a feared man in government circles. Anyway, Popes elegance and wit shine through

The Rape of the Lock (in 5 cantos) is one of the most famous English-language examples of the mock-epic. Published in its first version in 1712, when Pope was only 23 years old, the poem served to forge his reputation as a poet and remains his most frequently studied work. The inspiration for the poem was an actual incident among Popes acquaintances (conoscenti) in which Robert, Lord Petre, cut off a lock of Arabella Fermors hair, and the young peoples families fell into strife (conflitto) as a result. John Caryll, another member of this same circle of prominent Roman Catholics, asked Pope to write a light poem that would put the episode into a humorous perspective and reconcile the two families. The poem was originally published in a shorter version, which Pope later revised. In this later version he added the machinery, the retinue (seguito/scorta) of supernaturals who influence the action as well as the moral of the tale.

The Rape of the Lock: Summary

Belinda arises to prepare for the days social activities after sleeping late. Her guardian sylph, Ariel, warned her in a dream that some disaster will befall(accadere)* her, and promises to protect her to the best of his abilities. Belinda takes little notice of this oracle, however. After an elaborate ritual of dressing and primping (agghindarsi), she travels on the Thames River to Hampton Court Palace, an ancient royal residence outside of London, where a group of wealthy young socialites are gathering for a party. Among them is the Baron, who has already made up his mind to steal a lock of Belindas hair. He has risen early to perform and elaborate set of prayers and sacrifices to promote success in this enterprise. When the partygoers arrive at the palace, they enjoy a tense (teso) game of cards, which Pope describes in mock-heroic terms as a battle. *to befall, befell, befallen

This is followed by a round of coffee. Then the Baron takes up a pair of scissors and manages, on the third try, to cut off the coveted (desiderato) lock of Belindas hair. Belinda is furious. Umbriel, a mischievous gnome*, journeys down to the Cave of Spleen to procure a sack of sighs and a flask (fiasco) of tears which he then bestows* on the heroine to fan* the flames of her ire. Clarissa, who had aided the Baron in his crime, now urges Belinda to give up her anger in favor of good humor and good sense, moral qualities which will outlast* her vanities. But Clarissas moralizing falls on deaf ears, and Belinda initiates a scuffle* between the ladies and the gentlemen, in which she attempts to recover the severed curl. The lock is lost in the confusion of this mock battle, however; the poet consoles the poor Belinda with the suggestion that it has been taken up into the heavens and immortalized as a constellation. *gnome: /n m/ *to bestow: concedere/elargire *to fan: attizzare ; fan: ventaglio, ventilatore, sostenitore *outlast: sopravvivere *scuffle: baruffa

Cooling hot tempers

The Rape of the Lock is a humorous indictment of the vanities and idleness of 18th-century high society. Basing his poem on a real incident among families of his acquaintance, Pope intended his verses to cool hot tempers and to encourage his friends to laugh at their own folly.

Mocking the epic

The poem is perhaps the most outstanding* example in the English language of the genre of mock-epic. The epic had long been considered one of the most serious of literary forms; it had been applied, in the classical period, to the lofty subject matter of love and war. The strategy of Popes mock-epic is not to mock the form itself, but to mock his society in its very failure to rise to epic standards, exposing its pettiness by casting it against the grandeur of the traditional epic subjects and the bravery and fortitude of epic heroes: Popes mock-heroic treatment in The Rape of the Lock underscores* the ridiculousness of a society in which values have lost all proportion *outstanding: notevole *underscore: sottolineare

Images from the epic tradition

The society on display in this poem is one that fails to distinguish between things that matter and things that do not. The poem mocks the men it portrays by showing them as unworthy of a form that suited a more heroic culture. The Rape of the Lock is a poem in which every element of the contemporary scene conjures up some image from epic tradition or the classical world view, and the pieces are wrought together with a cleverness and expertise that makes the poem surprising and delightful. The great, if capricious, Greek and Roman gods are converted into a relatively undifferentiated army of basically ineffectual sprites. Cosmetics, clothing, and jewelry substitute for armor and weapons, and the rituals of religious sacrifice are transplanted to the dressing room and the altar of love.

The verse form

The verse form of The Rape of the Lock is the heroic couplet; Pope still reigns as the uncontested master of the form. The heroic couplet consists of rhymed pairs of iambic pentameter lines (lines of ten syllables each, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables). Popes couplets do not fall into strict iambs, however, flowering instead with a rich rhythmic variation that keeps the highly regular meter from becoming heavy or tedious

Now its up to you! Thanks for your attention and good luck! Annalisa Bonomo