Baseband Transmission and Line Coding

Presented by:
T.F.Lai
Member of IEEE, IET & WWF Electrical Project Consultant (http://electricalprojecttestimonial.blogspot.com/)

Outline of the Presentation

Introduction Baseband Centre Point Detection Baseband binary error rates in Gaussian noise Multilevel baseband signaling Error accumulation over multiple hops Unipolar signaling Polar signaling Dipolar signaling

Introduction
This chapter addresses two issues central to baseband signal transmission, digital signal detection and line coding. The analysis of detection processes is important since this leads to the principle objective measure of digital communications system quality, i.e. the probability of symbols being detected in error, as quantified by probability error. Appropriate coding of the transmitted symbol pulse shape can minimize the probability of error by ensuring that the spectral characteristic of the digital signal are well matched to the transmission channel. The line code must also permit the receiver to extract accurate PCM bit and word timing signals directly from the received data, for proper detection and interpretation of the digital pulses.

Baseband centre point detection

The detection of digital signals involves two processes: Reduction of each received voltage pulse (i.e. symbol) to a single numerical value. Comparison of this value with a reference voltage (or, for multisymbol signaling, a set of reference voltage) to determine which symbol was transmitted. In the case of symbols represented by different voltage levels the simplest way of achieving 1 is to sample the received signal plus noise; 2 is then implemented using one or more comparators. In the case of equiprobable, binarym symbols (zero and one) represented by two voltage levels (e.g. 0V and 3V) intuition tells us that a sensible strategy would be to set the reference, Vref (Figure 6.1(b)), mid-way between the two voltage levels (i.e. at 1.5V).

Baseband centre point detection

Decisions would then be made at the centre of each symbol period on the basis of whether the instantaneous voltage (signal plus noise) is above or below this reference. Sampling the instantaneous signal plus noise voltage somewhere near the middle of the symbol period is called centre point detection, Figure 6.1(a). The noise present during detection is often either Gaussian or approximately Gaussian.

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Figure 6.2(a) shows the pdf of a binary information signal which can take on voltage levels V0 and V1 only. Figure 6.2(b) shows the pdf of a zero mean Gaussian noise process, Vn(t), with RMS value W V. Since the process has zero mean the RMS value and standard deviation are identical. Figure 6.2(c) shows the pdf of the sum of the signal and noise voltage. Figure 6.2(c) is perhaps no surprise we can think of the quasi-DC symbol voltage biasing the mean value of the noise to V0 and V1 . Figure 6.2(c) is thus the convolution of 6.2(a) and (b). For equiprobable symbols the optimum decision level is set at (V0 + V1)/2.

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Given that the symbol 0 is transmitted (i.e. voltage level V0) then the probability, Pe1, that the signal plus noise will be above the threshold at the decision instant is given by twice the shaded area under the curve p0(Vn) in Figure 6.2(c):

1 Pe1 ! e ( V0  V1 ) / 2 W 2T

 ( Vn  V0 ) 2 2W2

dv n ------------------- (1)

Using the change of variable x = (Vn V0)/2W this becomes:

1 x 2 Pe1 ! e dx ------------------------ (2) T ( V1  V0 / 2 2W )

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

The incomplete integration in equation 2 cannot be evaluated analytically but can be recast as a complementary error function, erfc(x), defined by:
2 2 erfc(z) ! e  x dx T z ( g

----------------------- (3)

Thus equation 2 becomes:

1 V1  V0 Pe1 ! erfc 2 2W 2

----------------------- (4)

Alternatively, since erfc(z) and the error function, erf(z), are related by: erfc(z) = 1 erf(z) -------------------------------------- (5)

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Then Pe1 can also be written as:

1 V1  V0 Pe1 ! 1  erfc ------------------------- (6) 2 2W 2

The advantage of using error (or complementary error) function in the expression for Pe1 is that this function has been extensively tabulated. If the digital symbol one is transmitted then the probability Pe0, that the signal plus noise will be below the threshold at the decision instant is:
( V0  V1 ) / 2

Pe 0 !

g

1 e W 2T

 ( Vn  V1 ) 2 2W 2

dv n --------------- (7)

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

It is clear from the symmetry of this problem that Pe0 is identical to both Pe1 and the probability of error, Pe, irrespective of whether a one or zero was transmitted. Noting that the probability of error depends on only symbol voltage difference and not absolute voltage levels, Pe can be rewritten in terms of (V = V1 V0:

1 (V Pe ! 1  erfc 2 2W 2

--------------------------- (8)

Equation (8) is valid for both unipolar signaling and polar signaling.

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise(Figure 6.3)

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Whilst the x-axis of Figure 6.3 is clearly related to signal to noise ratio it is not identical to it for all pulse levels and shapes. This is partly because it involves the signal only at the sampling instant (whereas a conventional SNR uses a time averaged signal power) and partly because the use of (V neglects any transmitted DC component. For NRZ, unipoar, rectangular pulse signaling, Figure 6.4, the normalised peak signal power is Speak = (V2 and the average signal power is S = (V2/2. The normalised Gaussian noise power is N = W2. We therefore have:

(V S S ! 2 ! W N peak N

1/ 2

1/ 2

------------------------ (9)

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Where (S/N)peak indicates peak signal power divided by average noise power. Substituting for (V/W in equation (8) we therefore have:
1/ 2 1 1 S Pe ! 1  erf 2 2 2 N peak

---------------------- (10)

Or
1/ 2 1 1 S Pe ! 1  erf ----------------------------(11) 2 2 N

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise (Figure 6.4/6.5)

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

For NRZ, polar, rectangular pulse signaling with the same voltage spacing as in the unipolar, Figure 6.5, the peak and average signal powers are identical, Speak = S = ((V/2)2 and we can therefore write:

(V S S ! 2 ! 2 W N N peak
Substitute into equation (8) we now have:

1/ 2

1/ 2

------------------------ (11)

1/ 2 1 1 S ------------------------- (12) Pe ! 1  erf 2 2 N

Baseband Binary Error Rates in Gaussian Noise

Whilst probabilities of symbol and bit error are the quantities usually calculated, it is the symbol error rate (SER) or bit error rate (BER) which is usually measured. These are simply the number of symbol or bit errors occurring per unit time measured over a convenient period. The symbol error rate is clearly related to the probability of symbol error by: SER = PeRs Where Rs is the symbol rate in symbol/s or baud. Bit error rate is related to the probability of bit error by: BER = PbRsn = PbRb

Multilevel baseband signaling

Figure 6.6 shows a schematic diagram of a multilevel or multisymbol signal. If the number of equally spaced, allowed levels is M then the symbol plus noise pdfs look like those in Figure 6.7 (drawn for M=4). The probability of symbol error for the M-2 inner symbols (i.e. any but the symbols represented by the lowest or highest voltage level) is now twice that in the binary case. This is because the symbol can be in error if the signal plus noise voltage is too high or too low.

Multilevel baseband signaling

PeM|inner symbol = 2Pe -------------------------------------------- (13) The symbol error for the two outer levels is identical to that for the binary case, PeM|outer symbol = Pe -----------------------------------------------(14) Once again assuming equiprobable symbols, the average probability of symbol error is:

PeM

M2 2 2( M  1) ! 2Pe  Pe ! Pe M M M M 1 (V ! 1  erf M 2W 2

-------- (15)

Substitute for Pe from equation 8,

PeM

-------------------- (16)

Error accumulation over multiple hops

All signal transmission media (e.g. cables, waveguides, optical fibres) attenuate signals to a greater or lesser extent. This is even the case for the space through which radio waves travel. For long communication paths attenuation might be so severe that the sensitivity of normal receiving equipment would be inadequate to detect the signal. In such cases the signal is boosted in amplitude at regular intervals along the transmitter receiver path. The equipment which boost the signal is called repeater and the path between adjacent repeaters is called a hop. A repeater along with its associated, preceding, hop is called a section. Thus long distance communication is usually achieved using multiple hops.

Error accumulation over multiple hops

Repeaters used on multi-hop links can be divided into essentially two types. These are amplifying repeaters and regenerative repeaters. For analogue communication linear amplifiers are required. For digital communications either type of repeater could be used but normally regenerative repeaters are employed. Figure 6.8 shows a schematic of an m-hop link.

Error accumulation over multiple hops

If a binary signal with voltage levels s(/2 is transmitted then the voltage received at the input of the first amplifying repeater is sE(V/2 + n1(t) where E is the linear voltage attenuation factor (or voltage gain factor < 1) and n1(t) is the random noise (with standard deviation, or RMS value, W) added during the first hop. In a well designed system the voltage gain, GV, of the repeater will be just adequate to compensate for the attenuation over the first hop, GV = 1/E. At the output of the first repeater the signal is restored to its original level (s(V/2) but the noise signal is also amplified to a level GVn1(t) and will now have an RMS value of GVW. The probability of error for m-hop link is therefore given by:

1 (V Pe |m hops ! 1  erf 2 2W 2m

Unipolar signaling
Unipolar signaling (also called on-off keying) refers to a line code in which one binary symbol (denoting a digital 0, for example) is represented by the absence of a pulse and other binary symbol (denoting a digital 1) is represented by the presence of a pulse. There are two common variations on unipolar signaling, namely nonreturn to zero and return to zero. In the former case the duration X of the mark pulse to the duration T0 of the symbol slot. In the latter case X is less than T0. Both NRZ and RZ unipolar signals have a non-zero average DC level. Transmission of these signals over links with either transformer or capacitor coupled AC repeaters results in the removal of this line and the consequent conversion of the signals to a polar format.

Unipolar signaling
Furthermore, since the continuous part of the RZ and NRZ signal spectrum is non-zero at 0Hz then AC coupling results in distortion of the transmitted pulse shapes. If the AC coupled lines behave as high pass RC filters (which is typically the case) then the distortion takes the form of an exponential decay of the signal amplitude after each transition. This effect, referred to as signal droop , is illustrated in Figure 6.13:

Polar signaling
In polar signaling systems a binary one is represented by a pulse g1(t) and a binary zero by the opposite (or antipodal) pulse g0(t) = -g1(t). Polar signaling has a significant power advantage over unipolar signaling. Fundamentally this is because the pulses in a unipolar scheme are only orthobonal whilst the pulses in polar scheme are antipodal. Another way of explaining the difference in performance is to observe that the average or DC level transmitted with unipolar signals contains no information and is therefore wasted power. Polar binary signaling also has the advantage that, providing the symbols are equiprobable, the decision threshold is 0V. This means that no automatic gain control is required in the receiver.

DiPolar signaling
Dipolar is designed to produce a spectral null at 0Hz. This makes it especially well suited to AC coupled transmission lines. The symbol interval, T0, is split into positive and negative pulses each of width T0/2, Figure 6.11.