ATM Traffic Management,

Congestion Control,
Traffic Engineering
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ATM Traffic Management and Control
Traffic Contract
Traffic Control
Congestion Control
Traffic Engineering
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Traffic Contract
The traffic contract is an agreement between a user and a
network accross a UNI regarding the following spaects of
any VPC or VCC ATM cell flow:
QOS that a network is expected to provide
Traffic parameters that specify characteristics of the cell flow
The conformance checking rules
The networks definition of a compliant connection
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Reference Model
End-to-end QOS reference model
QOS commitments are probabilistic in nature and are approximated
End
User
End
User
public
ATM
network
public
ATM
network
public/
private
UNI
public/
private
UNI
Network A QOS
Network B QOS
End-to-end QOS
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Quality of Service
QOS is defined by specific parametersfor cells conforming
to the traffic contract
QOS is defined in terms of following cell transfer outcomes
Successful cell transfer outcome
succefully received within a specified time
Errored cell outcome: received cell content differs from the origin
Lost cell outcome: original cell is not received
Misinserted cell outcome
a received cell has no corresponding transmitted cell
Severly-errored cell block outcome
more than M errored cell, lost cell, or misinserted cell outcomes are
observed in a received cell block of N
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QOS Parameters
Negotiable parameters
Peak-to-peak Cell Delay Variation (CDV)
Maximum Cell Transfer Delay (Max CTD)
Mean Cell Transfer Delay (Mean CTD)
Cell Loss Ratio (CLR)
Non-negotiable parameters
Cell Error Ratio (CER)
Severely Errored Cell Block Ratio (SECBR)
Cell Misinsertion Ratio (CMR)
QOS parameters are specified individually in UNI 4.0
They were specified as classes in UNI 3.1
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CDV and CTD
CTD
fixed delay: propagation delay, transmission delay, fixed switch
processing delay
random delay: queueing(buffering), scheduling delays
CDV
induced by buffering and scheduling
cell transfer delay
prob.
density
E
1 E
fixed
delay
Peak-to-peak CDV
Max. CTD
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CTD
Maximum CTD
(1-a) quantile of CTD
a is recommended to be CLR
granularity:
Mean CTD
arithmetic average taken over a sample of cell population
2 1 32 0 31 0 31
23 ( )
*( / ), ,
e
m e m

e e e e
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CDV
One-point cell delay variation
the difference between the cells reference arrival time (c) and actual
arrival time (a) at the measurement point
Two-point cell delay variation
the difference between the absolute cell transfer delay between two MPs
and a defined reference cell transfer delay
Peak-to-peak cell delay variation
(1-a) quantile of the CTD (worst case) minus the fixed CTD (best case)
c a
c
c T if c a
a T otherw ise
k
k k k
k
0 0
1
0 = =
=
u

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CLR, CER, SECBR, CMR
Cell Loss Ratio (CLR)
Lost Cells/Total Transmitted Cells
Cell Error Ratio (CER)
Errored Cells/(Succ. Trans. Cells + Errored Cells)
Severely-Errored Cell Block Ratio (SECBR)
Severely Errored Cell Blocks/Total Transmitted Cell Blocks
Cell Misinsertion Rate
Misinserted Cells/Time Interval
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Reference Model
Equivalent terminal reference model for traffic contract
s
1
s
N
MUX Shaper
Physical
Layer
Functions
PHY
SAP
ATN Layer
PHY Layer
Equivalent Terminal
Other CPE
Functions
Generating
Traffic
Deviations
UPC
T
B
T
S
Public
UNI
Private
UNI
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Traffic Descriptor
A list of parameters which captures intrinsic source traffic
characteristics
Peak Cell Rate (PCR)
1/T, where T is the minimum intercell spacing in seconds
Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT):
number of cells that can be sent back-to-back at line speed is
Substainable Cell Rate (SCR)
maximum average cell rate
Maximum Burst Size (MBS)
maximum number of cells can be sent at peak rate
Minimum Cell Rate (MCR)
minimum cell rate that needs to be guaranteed
t
t /T + 1
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ATM Service Architecture (ATM Forum)
Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
require tightly constrainted delay and delay variation
Interactive Video/Audio, Video/Audio retrieval
Real-Time Variable Bit Rate (rt-VBR)
same as CBR but allows statistical multiplexing to impreove
efficiency
Non-Real-Time Variable Bit Rate (nrt-VBR)
allows low cell lost rate and a bound of transfer delay
Response time critical transaction processing
Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)
Available Bit Rate (ABR)
low cell loss rate but cell delay variation is not guaranteed
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QOS Parameters, Traffic Descriptors,
and Service Category
CBR
Traffic descriptor
PCR, CDVT
QOS
peak-to-peak CDV, Maximum CTD, CLR
rt-VBR
Traffic descriptor
PCR, SCR, CDVT(for PCR and SCR), MBS
QOS
peak-to-peak CDV, Maximum CTD, CLR
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QOS Parameters, Traffic Descriptors,
and Service Category
nrt-VBR
Traffic descriptor
PCR, SCR, CDVT(for PCR and SCR), MBS
QOS
Mean CTD, CLR
ABR
Traffic descriptor
PCR, CDVT, MCR
QOS
CLR
UBR
Specify PCR, CDVT, no QOS is specified
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Conformance
Generic Cell Rate Algorithm
Virtual Scheduling Algorithm
cell arrives at t
a
(k)
TAT = TAT + I
Conforming Cell
Non
Conforming
Cell
TAT<t
a
(k)?
TAT>
t
a
(k)+L?
TAT=t
a
(k)
YES
YES
NO
NO
TAT: Theoretical Arrival Time
I: Increment
L: Limit
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Genetic Cell Rate Algorithm (GCRA)
Continuous-State Leaky Bucket Algorithm
X = X - (t
a
(k)-LCT)
X=X+I, LCT= t
a
(k)
Conforming Cell
Non
Conforming
Cell
X<0?
X>L?
X=0
YES
YES
NO
NO
TAT: Theoretical Arrival Time
X: Value of Leaky Bucket Counter
X: Updated Counter
LCT: Last Compliance Time
Note that capacity of Leaky Bucket is L+I
cell arrives at t
a
(k)
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PCR Reference Model
s
1
s
N
MUX Shaper
Physical
Layer
Functions
PHY
SAP
ATN Layer
PHY Layer
Equivalent Terminal
Other CPE
Functions
Generating
Traffic
Deviations
UPC
T
B
T
S
Public
UNI
Private
UNI
t
G CRA T ( , ) 0 G CRA T ( , )
*
t G CRA T ( , ) t
t
*
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SCR Reference Model
s
1
s
N
MUX Shaper
Physical
Layer
Functions
PHY
SAP
ATN Layer
PHY Layer
Equivalent Terminal
Other CPE
Functions
Generating
Traffic
Deviations
UPC
T
B
T
S
Public
UNI
Private
UNI
t
S
**
G CRA T
S
( , ) t G CRA T
S
( , )
*
t G CRA T
S
( , )
**
t
t
S
*
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CDV Tolerance
The maximum number of cells can be sent back-to-back at
the full link rate
N
T
=

1
t
o
o : tim e to send 53 bytes at full link rate
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SCR and MBS
MBS is given by
Given MBS, T
s
, T
Number of Cells can be sent in time t
M BS
T T
s
s
=

1
t
. J
t
s s s
M BS T T M SB T T ( )( ), ( ) 1
N t
t
T
t
T
s
s
( ) , e

1 1
t
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Usage/Network Parameter Control
Cell flows must be checked, or policed, by Usage
Parameter Control (UPC) at UNI or Network Parameter
Control (NPC) at NNI.
UPC/NPC is also called policing.
Performance of UPC/NPC implementation is specified in
relation to the leaky bucket conformance checking
algorithm.
Possible UPC/NPC implementations
Leaky Bucket UPC/NPC
Sliding Window UPC
Jumping Window UPC
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Leaky Bucket UPC
Same algorithm as the conforming check
no data buffer
For non-conforming cells
Monitor
Keeps track of how many cells were nonconforming
Tag
Tags non-conforming cells with CLP=1
Discard
Disacrds non-conforming cells
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Leaky Bucket UPC
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Window-based UPC
Conforming criteria: no more than M cells in N cell times
can be delivered
A window consist of N cell times
Sliding window
Window is moved to the right by Slide each cell time
Jumping window
Window is moved to the right by N units every N cell times
Exponentially Weighted Moving Average Mechanism (EWMA)
The max. number of accepted in the I-th window is a function of the
allowed mean number of cells per interval and an exponentially
weighted sum of the number of accepted cells in the preceeding
intervals
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Window-based UPC
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UPC Differences
Further Reading: E. P. Rathgeb, Policing mechanisms for ATM Networks
Modeling and Performance Comparison, ITC, 1990.
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Priority Control
Traffic with different QOS guarantees may require
different priority queueing and scheduling policies.
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Generic Flow Control
GFC is performed at UNI
Four bits are allocated for GFC; the first two bits are for control
commands (start, stop, null) and the last two bits are for type
The multiplexer command terminals and terminals echo if they
understand the commands.
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Traffic Shaping
The source cell stream is shaped to conform the traffic
contract (can be done at UNI and/or NNI)
Shaping Methods
Buffering (+ leaky bucket)
Spacing
Peak Cell Rate Reduction
Scheduling
Burst Length Limiting
Source Rate Limitation (circuit emulation)
Priority Queueing
Framing
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Leaky Bucket with Data Buffer
C
bucket size: b
V
source
Maximum cells can be sent during time t:
m in( , ) Ct t b V
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Connection Admission Control
A connection request defines the source traffic parameters
and requested QOS. The CAC function decides whether a
connection request is admitted or denied.
Basic requirement for acceptance
The requested QOS can be satisfied
The QOS of existing connections can still be met
Can be done node-by-node or in a centralized system
Correlated to QOS guarantee and routing
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Resource Management
Two Critical resources: buffer and bandwidth
Fast resource management
Managing resources dynamically (at burst level)
Fast bandwidth reservation
Bandwidth is reserved at each node along an end-to-end route
A request is sent for each new burst
Burst of cells is sent when granted ack is received
Bandwidth is then released after the busrt is sent
Works well only when the burst length is much larger than the RTD
Fast buffer reservation
Buffer is reserved instead of bandwidth
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Congestion Control
Congestion
demand for resources exceeds the available resources
Impact of congestion depends on
Application characteristics
connection mode, retransmission policy, acknowledgement policy,
responsiveness, flow control, ...
Network characteristics
queueing strategy, service scheduling policy, discard policy, route
selection, connection mode, processing delay, propagation delay
Congestion occurs at three levels
cell level
burst level
call level
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Congestion Control
Congestion may involve a single node or multiple nodes
Congestion control performance
Userful throughput (goodput)
Effective delay
Congestion collapse
When network is severely congested, goodput decreases as offered
load increases.
An ideal congestion control scheme
No congestion collapse
When severely congested, the system maintains constant goodput (at
maximum available capacity) and effective delay.
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Congestion Control Categories and
Levels
Category Cell Level Burst Level Call Level
Manage-
ment
Avoidance
Recovery
UPC Discard
Resource
Allocation
Network
Engineering
EFCI,
UPC Tagging
Selective Cell
Discard,
Dynamic UPC
Window, Rate,
or Credit based
Flow Control
Loss Feedback
Overbooked
CAC,
Call Blocking
Call Disconnect-
ion, Operations
Procedures
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Congestion Management
Attempts to ensure that congestion is never experienced
Methods
Resource allocation
Proper allocation of trunk capacity, buffer space
Resulting network utilization may be very low
UPC discard
Full booked CAC
CAC is done based on worst case
Network Engineering
Allocating resources based on long-term, historical trending and
projections.
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Congestion Avoidance
Attempts to avoid severe congestion, but continues to push
the offered load into the mildly congested region
Methods
Explicit Forward Congestion Indication (EFCI)
EFCI bit is set if buffer exceeds a threshold
Destination should inform sender when EFCI is set (no BECN in ATM)
Relatively long round trip delay is a problem in high speed networks
UPC Tagging + selective discard (or dynamic UPC)
Overbooked CAC
Statisticaly QOS guarantee
Call Blocking
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Congestion Avoidance by Flow Control
Desirable properities
Utilize bandwidth as much as possible
Fair to user access to the available bandwidth
Isolate conforming users from overloading type users
Flow control methods
Window-based flow control
TCP-like congestion control
Flow control window: determined by receivers available buffer size
Congestion window
Slow start + Multiplicative decrease
Rate-based flow control
Credit-based flow control
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Rate-based Flow Control
End-to-end based control of transmitting rate at source
It can be augmented by adding intermediate nodes (domains)
Max-min fairness
RM cell fields
DIR (forward or return) CI (congestion indication)
CCR (current cell rate) ER (explicit rate)
Control parameters
ICR (initial cell rate) ACR (actual cell rate)
PCR (peak cell rate) MCR (minimum cell rate)
RIF, AIR (increase factor) RDF (rate decrease factor)
Two types of switch
EFCI, ER
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Rate-based Segmented Flow Control
Rate-based end-to-end feedback loop
Source
Destn
Rate-based segmented control loop
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Max-Min Flow Control
Max-min Fairness
All sessions shared a link should have the same bandwidth while
the link utilization can be maximized
Max-Min Maximizing network usage allocated to users with
minimum allocation
Intuition: Maximize the allocation of each user i s.t. an incremental
increase is its allocation does not cause a decrease of some other
users allocation that is already as small as is or smaller.
C=1
C=1 C=3
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
0
r
1
=0.5 r
2
=0.5
r
0
=0.5
r
3
=2.5
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Max-Min Flow Control
Model
G = (N,A) is a directed graph with |N| nodes and |A| links
P is a set of sessions, p denotes a session as well as the path
traversed by p
r
p
: rate for session p
F
a
: Flow on link a, C
a
is the capacity of link a
problem: find r
p
such that max-min fairness is satisfied
a a
p
p
P p
p p a
C F
r
w o
p a if
a
r a F
e
u

=
=

0
. . 0
1
) (
) (
o
o
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Max-Min Flow Control
Definition
A rate vector r is max-min fair if it satisfies r
p
u0, F
a
eC
a
and for each
p of P, r
p
cannot be increased without decreasing r
p
for some
session p for which r
p
e r
p
. More formally, let r
*
be some vector
satisfies r*
p
u0, F
a
eC
a
. If r
p
< r*
p
then r
p
u r
p
and r
p
> r*
p
Property
For each session p, there is a bottleneck link a, s.t. F
a
=C
a
r
p
is at least as large as the rate of any other session using that
bottleneck link.
Max-Min fairness for ABR traffic?
Rate of ABR traffic is maintained between PCR and MCR
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Max-Min Flow Control Algorithm
1 , , , 0 , 0
1 1 0 0
= = = = = k A A P P r F
p a
Initialization
Loop

=
=
=
k
k
k
A a
k
p p
k
a
k
p
k k k
p k
p
k
a
k
a a
A a
P p
p
k
a
r a F
w o r
P p r r
r
n F C
a n
) ( 4.
. .
~
3.
/ ) ( min r
~
2.
) ( 1.
1
1
1 k
o
o
,
,
1. to go otherwise stop, , If 8.
1 7.
0, ) ( | 6.
0 | 5.
1 1
1
o
o
=
=
Z V = =
> =

P
k k
A a a p P
F C a A
k
p
k
k
a a
k
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Example
C=1
C=1 C=3
S
1
S
3
S
2
S
0
r
1
=0.5 r
2
=0.5
r
0
=0.5
r
3
=2.5
Initial:
1 , , , 0 , 0
1 1 0
3 , 2 , 1
0
3 , 2 , 1
= = = = = k A A P P r F
Iteration 1:
, , 2 , 3 , 3 , 1 , 5 . 0 , 5 . 0
~
, 2
1 1 1
3 , 2 , 1
1
3 , 2 , 1 , 0
1 1
3 , 2 , 1
= = = = = = = k P A F r r n
Iteration 2:
3 , , , 3 , 5 . 2 , 2
~
, 1
2 2 2
3
2
3
2 2
3
= 1 = 1 = = = = = k P A F r r n
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Explicit Forward Congestion Indication
(EFCI)
At regular intervals, the destination would check if CI bit
was set in the last received cell and send a backward RM
cell to the sender to indicate congestion or not.
Linear increase
Sender receives an RM cell with CI=0, it would increase its rate by a
fixed increment.
ACR = min (ACR+AIR, PCR)
Multiplicative decrease
Sender receives an RM cell with CI=1, or does not receive RM cells for
an interval, it would decrease its rate by an amount proportional to its
current rate
ACR = max (ACR/RDF, MCR)
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Congestion Indication
How to determine a path is congested?
At least one of the switches on the path is congested
How to determine a switch is congested?
On-set threshold: turn the congestion on
Abatement threshold: turn the congestion off
Set the EFCI bit (2nd bit of PTI) data cell or RM cell traversed
How does a destination determine a VC is congested?
If the EFCI bit of the most recently received data cell is set
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Explicit Rate (ER) Flow Control
ER switches
Set explicit rate in forward/backward RM cells
Algorithm
Source behavior
Destination behavior
Switch behavior
Many proposed algorithms
PRCA
EPRCA
ERICA
CAPC
Max-Min fairness (Charny, Tsang, )
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Proportional Rate Control Algorithm
(PRCA)
Proportional Rate Control Algorithm (PRCA)
Rate of ABR traffic is maintained between PCR and MCR
Source behavior
Source starts with ICR (initial cell rate)
Source sends a RM cell to destination every Nrm data cells
After source received the returned RM cell
If CI is not set, increase rate by AIR and compensate the rate reduced
additively in last cycle, but not exceeds ER or PCR
If CI is set, reduce rate by ACR/RDF, but not less than MCR
For each cell sent, source reduces rate by a fixed amount, ADR
Destination behavior
Destination sets CI bit if EFCI of last received data cell was set,
change ER to desired rate and returns it to source
Switch behavior
Set CI bit, reduce ER rate if necessary
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Enhanced Proportional Rate Control
Algorithm (EPRCA)
Source behavior
Initial step
ACR=ICR, ADR=ACR/2
MDR
, MDR(Multiplicative Decrease Factor)
After a cell transmission time and ACR>ICR, or a cell has been sent
ACR = max(ACR-ADR, MCR)
a cell transmission time is 1/ACR
Every Nrm cells the forward RM cell is sent
On receiving a backward RM cell
if CI=0, ACR=max(min(ACR+Nrm*ADR+AIR, ER, PCR), MCR)
if Ci=1, ACR=max(min(ACR*RDF, ER), MCR)
Switch behavior
Maintain a MACR, mean allowed cell rate, for each VC. MACR=(1-
)MACR+CCR
Fair Share, FS=DPF*MACR (DPF is the switch down pressure factor)
When received a backward RM cell and queue length > Q
t
, set ER=FS
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Explicit Rate Indication for Congestion
Avoidance (ERICA)
Source behavior
Initial step
ACR=ICR
Every Nrm cells the forward RM cell is sent
On receiving a backward RM cell
if CI=0, ACR=max(min(ACR+AIR, ER, PCR), MCR)
if Ci=1, ACR=max(min(ACR*RDF, ER), MCR)
Switch behavior
Measure link load factor z = (Input rate)/(Target rate)
VC_Share = CCR/z
FS = (Target rate)/(# of active connections)
When received a backward RM cell, set ER = max (VC_Share, FS)
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Congestion Avoidance Using
Proportional Control (CAPC)
Switch behavior
Measure link load factor z = (Input rate)/(Target rate)
If z<1, FS = FS * min(ERU, 1+(1-z)*R
up
)
Default: ERU=1.5, R
up
=0.025~0.1
If z>1, FS = FS * max(ERF, 1+(1-z)*R
dn
)
Default: ERF=0.5, R
dn
=0.2~0.8
When received a backward RM cell, set ER =FS
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Charnys Max-Min Flow Control
Source behavior
ACR: allowed cell rate, SCCR: current actual cell rate, DEMAND: demand
of source, DI: demand increased indicator
Initially: ACR=min(DEMAND, link bandwidth), CCR=ER=ACR, SCCR=0
If Demand changes
If demand increased, DI=1; ACR=min(DEMAND, link bnadwidth)
if demand decreased, ACR=min(ACR, DEMAND), SCCR=min(ACR,SCCR),
DI=0
If time to send RM cell
DI=0, ER=min(DEMAND, link bandwidth), CCR=ACR
If returned RM cell received
if DI=1, SCCR=max(SCCR,ER)
if DI=0
ACR=min(ER,DEMAND)
If ACR increased, schedule SCCR to increase to ACR (pending increase)
If ACR decreased, SCCR=min(SCCR, ACR)
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Charnys Max-Min Flow Control
Switch behavior
Initially, FS = bandwidth/(#of active connections)
Mark a VC as a constrained VC if
the CCR of the forward RM cell of that VC is less than FS
Compute FS
Compute AR according to Max-Min fairness algorithm
When a forward RM cell received, CCR=min(CCR,AR),
ER=min(ER,AR), re-examine the state of the VC
When a backward RM cell received, CCR=min(CCR,AR),
ER=min(ER,AR)
VCs d constraine of # - VCs of #

=
VC d constraine
bandwidth bandwidth
FS
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Tsangs Max-Min Flow Control
Switch behavior
does not change CCR of RM cells
Mark a VC as a constrained VC if ER is less than FS
Determine the state of a VC when either a forward RM cell or a
backward RM cell is received
When the switch receives a forward RM cell, it will do the follow :
1. If ER_RM=ER_f(j) then GoTo step 9
2. ER_f(j)=ER_RM
3. If min(ER_f(j), ER_b(j)) <=CA(j) THEN
constrained(j) = 1, CA(j) = min(ER_f(j), ER_b(j))
ELSE constrained(j) = 0.
4. For all unconstrained connections i , let CA(i) =
where
5. changed = 0
6. For all unconstrained connectons i IF min(ER_f(i),ER_b(i)) <=
THEN constrained(i)=1, CA(i)=min(ER_f(i),ER_b(i)), and changed=1
7. For all constrained connections k IF min(ER_f(k),ER_b(k)) >
THEN constrained(k)=0 and changed = 1
8. IF changed = 1 GOTO step 4
9. END
0 =

A BW CA k
N M
constrained connection
( )
_
0
0
0
ER_f: ER of forward RM
ER_b: ER of backward RM
CA: current allocation
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Credit-based Flow Control
Link-by-link, per-VC flow control
Can be extended to control a bundle of VCs
Algorithm
Buffer allocation: buffer space is allocated when seting up a VC
Credit control
sender keeps track of total number of cells transmitted, Tx_Cnt
receiver keeps track of total number of cells forwarded, Fwd_Cnt
receover sends Fwd_cnt to sender every N forwarded cells
When sender receives Fwd_cnt, it computes credit balance, Crd_Bal
Crd_Bal = Buf_alloc - (Tx_cnt - Fwd_cnt)
Special care needed for lost cells or lost credits
Maximum average bandwidth a VC can achieve
BW = Buf_alloc/(RTT+N)
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Example of Window-based Flow Control
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Example of Rate-based Flow Control
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Example of Credit-based Flow Control
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Performance study of
Window-based Flow Control
Source rate
Queue length
P Q Et
P E P
P P
P Q Et

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )/
m in
m in
m ax
t e t t t
t t t t t t T
t
t t
= e e
= e e
=
=

1
1 4
4 4 1
4
E

Q
t
t
: w indow increase step size (linear)
: w indow decrease ratio (expo.)
: service rate
: forw ard propagation delay
: backw ard propagation delay
f
b
. J
. J
q t t dt
q
f
t
t
( ) ( )
ln /( )
m ax
=
=

P t Q
Et
Et Q Q Q Et
0
2
2
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Congestion Recovery
Actions to take in the severely congested region
Methods
Selective cell discard
When the buffer occupancy exceeds a threshold, CLP=1 cells are
discarded. When buffer is full, both CLP=0/1 cells are discarded
(Another threshold can be used for flush out CLP=1 cells.)
Dynamic UPC
Loss feedback
Congestion control by higher layer to reduce source traffic
Disconnection
Disconnect preemptible, low-priority connections
Operations procedures
Network management, operator intrusion
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Traffic Engineering
Source model
Performance specification and measurement
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Source Model
Poisson arrivals and Markov processes
Exponential interarrival time
M/M/1 queueing model
Markov Modulated Poisson Process (MMPP)
Arrival rate depends on current state of a multi-dimensional
Markov chain
Continuous vs Discrete
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Two-state MMPP
Known as On-Off source
Two state markov chain: on state and off state
When the process is in on state, it transmits data according to
Poisson process with rate = peak rate
When the process is in off state, it idles.
on off
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Discrete Time MMPP
Underlying Markov chain is a discrete time MC which is
described by a transition probability matrix.
The time spent at each state is geometrically distributed.
(Average burst size = 1/p
on-off
)
on off
p
off-on
1-p
off-on
p
on-off
1-p
on-off
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Continuous Time MMPP
Underlying Markov chain is a continuous time MC which
is described by a transition rate (infinitesimal generating)
matrix.
The time spent at each state is exponentially distributed.
(Average burst duration = 1/ )
E
on off
E

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MMPP Modeling Technique
Consider multiplexing N two-state MMPP sources
State space: (0, 1, ..., N)
At state i, packets are generated according to a Poisson process
with rate i* .
Assume the packet service time is exponentially distributed with
mean service time 1/v.
Assume the buffer size is infinite.
Let p
ij
be the probability that j sources are active and the queue
length is I.
p
ij
can be obtained by solving a two-dimensional Markov chain.

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Matrix Geometric Approach
Let p = [(p
00
p
01
......)(p
10
p
11
......) ...... ], then p = pP, where
P
B A
B A A
A A A
A A
A
=

0 0
1 1 0
2 1 0
2 1
2
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0 0
/
/
/
/
/
/ . . . .
B
N N
N N
N
N N
0
1 0 0
1 1 1 0
0 2 1 2 2 2 0
0 0 3 0
0
0 0 0 1
=

( )
[ ( ) ( )
[ ( ) ]
. . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . .
( )
P P
E E P P
E E P
E
P
E
.
.
.
.
.
.
B diag v v v
1
= [ , , , ] .
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Matrix Geometric Approach
Neuts has shown that
R is an mxm matrix
In our case
Solve R by iteration
p p R
i i
=
1
R R A
k
k
k
=
=

0
R A RA R A
R A A R A A
=
=

0 1
2
2
0 1
1 2
2 1
1
R
R A A R A A
n n
0
1 0 1
1 2
2 1
1
0 =
=

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Performance Measurement
Buffer methods (input vs output)
Buffer overflow probability
Buffer requirement
Effect of burst size
Shared buffer
Buffer requirement for CBR and VBR
Statistical multiplexing gain
Priority queueing
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Input vs. Output Buffer
Due to HOL blocking, the maximum throughput of input-
queued ATM switch is 0.586 for large switches.
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Buffer Overflow Probability
Approximate by M/M/1
B: buffer size (cells), P: burst size (cells)
Prob(O verflow )
B/P+1
} V
P=1
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Buffer Requirement
For a desired overflow probability, CLR, B is given by
B P
CLR
}
log( )
log( ) V
P=1
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Impact of Burst Size on Overflow Prob.
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Effect of Shared Output Buffer
Approximate by normal distribution
M ean =
N
1-
V ariance=
2N
(1- )
2
2
V
V
V
V
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Performance of CBR
Consider n identical CBR with PCR=1/T
P
B
n n n
L
=
}

Prob(Cell Loss) = e
ln(P )
2
(-2B /n-2B(1- ))
L
2
V
V V [ ( )] ( ) 1 2 1
2
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Performance of VBR
Consider V VBR sources with SCR=p
M ean V p V ariance V p p
B V p V p p w here
= =
}
( )
( )
1
1 E E Q ( )=CLR
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Statistical Multiplexing Gain
As more and more source are multiplexed together, the
statistics of this composite sum become increasingly more
predictable.
D efine
G =
N um ber of sources m ultiplexed
Required num ber of channels
Consider N sources w ith burstiness b (PCR/SCR)
A pproxim ated by norm al distribution
M ean = N /b V ariance = N /b(1-1/b)
Then, the required channels, C, to achieve a given CLR of Q ( ) is
C N /b + N (b-1)/b
If is the PCR-to-link-rate ratio
G
( (b-1)+4b/
E
E
L
L E L E
}
}

2 2
1
4
b )
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Statistical Multiplexing Gain
Wisdom of statistical multiplexing
The rate of any individual source should be low with respect to the
link rate and the burstiness of the sources must be high to achieve
a high statistical multiplexing gain.
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Statistical Multiplexing Gain
Number of sources required to achieve the predicted
statistical multiplexing gain
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Support of Multiple QOS Classes
Two priority queues
W
W
1
1
1 2
1
1
1 1
=

=
=

V Q
V
V V V
V Q
V V
/
( )
/
( )( )