Chapter 2. Fundamentals of camouflage of troops and objects. Lesson 2.1 Fundamentals of tactical camouflage.

Introduction The importance of camouflage in a contemporary combat is growing considerably due to the appearance of new reconnaissance apparatus.
Camouflage is a complex of measures directed at -concealment of troops and objects from the enemy - misinformation as to the presence of:-location - structure - operations and intentions of friendly troops The main methods of camouflage are:  concealment,  simulation,  Demonstrative and misinformation operations The essence of camouflage consists in concealment of identifying features of real objects and showing these identifying features of unreal objects, dummies.
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2.2 Objectives, tasks, of tactical camouflage 2.2.1 main objectives of tactical camouflage are: - contribute to the achievement of surprise and efficiency of combat operations. - to secure fighting efficiency and to increase the protection of friendly troops from enemy means of destruction.

Tactical camouflage is a complex and interconnected measures aimed at: - deceiving the enemy as to the real structure - disposition, -condition, -combat capabilities, intention and nature of operations of friendly troops.
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2.2.2 The main task of tactical camouflage during peace time is deception of a potential enemy as to:disposition, combat structure and system of control over friendly units,  daily activities of the troops concerning their combat training  Measures to be taken on transferring the troops to combat readiness  location, purpose and condition of fixed objects.


Main task of tactical camouflage in wartime is deception of the enemy as to the following: disposition, structure, support, condition and combat capabilities of the troops  combat tasks of the troops  concept of operation.


2.2.3 Most of all it concerns the following



   

Main attack direction (concentration of the main efforts), grouping of the main troops and weapons, their maneuver time and scale. system of fire conduct, arrangement of areas, positions, boundaries and the nature of engineer equipping. Command and control, place and time of deployment and reallocation of this points location, specifications and use of electronic gear. main activities on supporting combat operations.

Fig 2.2.3-1

2.3 tactical camouflage is achieved by:careful organization,  constant supervision,  effective and timely performance of planned camouflage missions,  regular control over the condition of the camouflage of troops and objects,  keeping secret of the camouflage operations and execution of the camouflage discipline. Tactical camouflage should be active, realistic, continuous and diverse.


Activeness ,constant deception of the enemy as to the intent of commanders, condition, change of deployment and other activities of friendly troops. Realistic, the camouflage should be convincing, corresponding to the situation and to the real capabilities of enemy reconnaissance.
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Diversity ,the technique and way of development and realization of camouflage activities should not be the same all the time. The goals of tactical camouflage are achieved by performing operations on concealment, demonstration and simulation. 2.3.1Concealment, There are four methods of concealment:
a.

Hiding. Hiding is the complete concealment of an object by some form of screen. Examples of different ways to hide are: placing grass over mines in minefield, placing objects beneath tree shade, placing equipment in defilade positions, covering objects with nets, and hiding roads or obstacles with linear screens. Make every effort to hide all operations. If possible, hide operations by conditions of limited visibility or by using terrain masking.

b. Blending. Blending is the arrangement or application of camouflage material on, over, and around an object so that it appears to be part of the background.
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Fig 2.3.1-1

Fig 2.3.1-2

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c. Disrupting. Breaking up an objects characteristic shape to avoid recognition because of shape, contrast, shadow, or radar or thermal signature, is considered a disruption technique. d. Disguising. Disguise is the application of materials to hide the true identity of an object .The purpose of disguise is to change the appearance of an object to resemble something of lesser or greater significance. For example, a missile launcher can be disguised to resemble a cargo truck. Clever disguise can mislead the enemy about the identity, strength, and intentions of friendly forces.

2.3.2 Demonstration: show the actions of real units (subunits) during displacement, regrouping, concentration, combat and other operations. The units (subunits) which perform the demonstration should not be aware of their real intention.
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2.3.3 Simulation: showing false dispositions and movements of friendly troops, dummy installations by creating corresponding identifying features. Demonstration and simulation are performed with the permission of the higher command.

2.4 efficiency of camouflage is ensured by combination of organizational measures and camouflage techniques. Among the organizational measures of camouflage are: constant supervision of camouflage and regular control over its timeliness and quality.  keeping the military secret, fulfilling the requirements of concealed control over troops, following the established procedures of troops operations and modes of electronic means.
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2.5 Tactical camouflage can counteract (neutralize) various reconnaissance means. it can be the following types:optical, radar, radio, thermal, sound (acoustic), radiation. The closer the target matches its background, the harder it is for the enemy to distinguish the target from its background. This principle of camouflage applies to all senses and all regions of the EM spectrum.

2.5.1. Optical(visual) camouflage includes: The most plentiful, reliable, and timely enemy sensors are visual. Therefore , camouflaging to prevent visual observation is extremely important.What cannot be seen is difficult to detect, identify, and hit. use of light screening , vegetation, smokes, pattern painting on vehicles and objects, making of dummy installations , use of decoys.
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Fig 2.5.1-1 Camouflage make-up of a soldier by distortion coloring

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Fig 2.5.1-2

Camouflage make-up of a soldier by distortion coloring

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Fig 2.5.1-3

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2.5.2 Radar
MTI (moving target indicator) Radar. MTI radar is a threat to ground forces near the battle area. Mission dictates the appropriate defense, while techniques depend on the equipment available. Radar-reflecting metal on dismounted soldiers has been reduced. helmets and body armor are now radar-transparent. Unfortunately, soldiers still carry metal objects to accomplish their mission (such as ammunition, magazines, and weapons), and most radars can detect these items. Therefore, movement discipline is very important. Moving by covered routes (terrain masking) will prevent radar detection. Slow, deliberate movements across areas exposed to radar coverage will assist in avoiding the attention of enemy MTI radar operators.
(a)

(b) Vehicles are large radar-reflecting objects. When vehicles move, they can be detected by MTI radar from up to 20 kilometers away. Moving by covered routes protects against MTI radar surveillance.

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2.5.3. Radio Sensors. The best way to prevent the enemy from locating radio transmitters is to minimize transmissions, protect transmissions from enemy interception, and practice good radio telephone operator procedures. Methods that ensure transmissions are minimized include : - simulation of objects -preplanning messages -transmitting as quickly as possible and using alternate communication means whenever possible. Whenever possible, use low-power transmissions, terrain masking, or directional or short-range antennas to protect the enemy from intercepting radio communications. 2.5.4. IR Sensors ( thermal) Natural materials and cover (terrain) shield heat sources from IR sensors and break up the shape of cold or warm military objects viewed on IR sensors. Do not raise vehicle covering to break windshield glare as this exposes a hot spot for IR detection.
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Even if the IR system is capable of locating a target, the targets actual identity still can be disguised. Avoid building unnecessary fires. Use vehicle heaters only when necessary. BDU dyes, LCSS, IR-defeating obscurants, and chemical-resistant camouflage paints help break up IR signatures but will not defeat IR sensors. And also installation of dummy thermal targets. (Battle-Dress Uniform) 2.5.5. Acoustic Sensors Human Ear. Noise discipline will defeat detection by the human ear. Pyrotechnics or loudspeakers can screen noise, cover inherently noisy activities, and confuse interpretation of sounds. Sound-Ranging Teams. It is possible to confuse the Threat by screening flashes or sounds. Explosives or pyrotechnics, fired a few hundred meters from a batterys position within a second of firing artillery, will effectively confuse sound-ranging teams. Coordination of fire with adjacent batteries (within two seconds) can also be effective in confusing enemy soundranging teams. -reproduction of noises and sounds to copy troops and objects.
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2.5.6 Radioactive camouflage  use of terrain irregularity and underground excavations, making of underground installations and installations with spoil around to store the means containing nuclear substances.  use of the covers which absorb nuclear radiation. The enemy detects and distinguishes troops, their actions and various objects due to their characteristic features. The aim of all camouflage measures is to conceal identifying features of real objects and to reproduce these features of real objects when making dummies Therefore, before starting to camouflage some object it is necessary to define its identifying features. The main identifying features are:  surface color of the object  size and shape of the object
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shadow cast off by objects shadow of the object and shadows on the objects surface shadow of objects shine of glass and metal availability of local reference points near the object which point to the location of even camouflaged objects troops activities: movement, sounds, fires, flash, smoke, dust, radio transmissions. traces of troops activities: trampled down grass, tracks, new paths, fireplaces, remainders of building materials, vehicle tracks, just cut vegetation. capability of objects to reflect radio waves, infra-red and other invisible radiations.
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Fig 2.5.6-1

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Fig 2.5.2-1

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2.6 Identifying features of objects and people When you conduct observation in a forest do not focus your attention on the trees and bushes which are close to you. You should look not at the surrounding objects but farther, through the gaps between trees, bushes, foliage. Vice versa, during movement, you should first examine the nearby trees from their top to bottom with the aim of detecting enemy observers. Remember, it is easier to detect a moving enemy. A fast movement of a hand, body or foot (even silent) can be noticed by trained eyes from a long distance. One should also survey closely the edges of forests, tops of trees, dense bushes, entrances and exits in narrow places (bridges, narrow valley, forest cuttings, etc.). If you climb a high tree in a large forest, you can detect the enemy by the rising dust, smoke, other signs visible over the tops of trees.
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Signs of the enemys presence in the forest can be: - flushing of birds; tracks of wheels leading to or out of the forest; broken branches or striped trees; fire smoke; movement noise; movement at the forest edge, shine of glass and weapon. You should be especially careful when you approach settlements or separate residential buildings. The buildings prepared for defense or occupied by observers usually do not have any signs of life activity. And it seems as if nobody is inside, but this emptiness is what you have to worry about. When you check a settlement, pay special attention to the roofs, attics, windows of high buildings, pipes from where the enemy can conduct observation. 2.7 Peculiarities of observation at night At night you can see the light of a burning fire approximately from the distance up to 8 km, a burning match 1-1.5 km, cigarette light up to 500 m. However, do not relay much on these figures. Human eyes cannot immediately adapt to a fast change of light into darkness and distinguish objects clearly

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Therefore, do not look at night directly at a light source. Always remember that if you look at a light for a short time, the adaptation of eyes will be lost and it will take not less than 20 min to adapt to the darkness again. You should not also stare at darkness for a long time, not to tire your sight. It is recommended to close eyes from time to time for 5-10 sec. Such short rest helps get rid of tiredness. During artificial illumination (illumination rockets, searchlights) do not look at the light source. Cover your eyes with your hand and look only at the illuminated terrain and enemy. 2.8 Inspection of the place of troops halt When you have found a place of former halt of troops, investigate it carefully. You can define the branch of the unit (subunit), its approximate manning by the following signs: area of trampled grass, quantity of fireplaces, places of eating food, vehicles tracks spilt lubricating materials, left packaging from ammunition and equipment. Try to find some envelope, letter, piece of document, magazine, newspaper, etc. by which you can find out the name or number of the subunit, its national composition, belonging, soldiers moral state.
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Careless setting up of the camp, abandoned property, uniforms, outfit, armament, broken equipment testify a bad moral condition of the enemy and weakening of the military discipline. Abandoned vehicles, armament, traces of bandaging (bandages, medicine packaging's ), worn out shoes, pieces of uniform and outfit inform us that the troops were exhausted. And vice versa, correct setting up of the camp, order in the abandoned place, absence of uniforms, outfit, armament show that the troops were in good condition. 2. 9 Main components of tactical camouflage, Fundamentals of organizing tactical camouflage. To camouflage troops, vehicles, objects (on positions, in the areas of disposition, during march) in a large scale, one should use just cut vegetation such as branches, bushes and bunches of grass by attaching them to the and vehicles surfaces.
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They are installed if the object is placed in open terrain or in a natural screen whose concealing features are insufficient. Most often, to conceal vehicles and objects, one uses: cover-screens, vertical, horizontal and disrupting screens. They are installed of local materials or with the use of standard camouflage sets. 2.10 Camouflaging troops, vehicles, objects with standard camouflage sets 2.10.1 Standard camouflage sets are:Individual camouflage of personnel ( camouflage suit), camouflage nets  To conceal combat and special vehicles from enemy air and ground reconnaissance , optical observation, from photographing, the following sets of fabric (cotton) are used: - K -T (transparent): to blend with vegetation - K -P: to blend with desert-sandy background - KS-2 (synthetic)

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2.10. 2 One camouflage set consists of a camouflage cover and accessories for its installation and transportation. The camouflage cover is 12m x 18m and consists of 12 parts (sized 3m x 6m each).  The accessories for installation and transportation are: sewing ropes, metal pickets and packaging cases. All the 12 parts are joined into one cover by connecting their edges and fixing with pins . These joint can be easily let out.


Organic sets are used to install cover-screens, vertical and horizontal screens, tent-screens and disrupting screens. Besides, to conceal vehicles and objects, the following is used: - Shatior frameless screen - U K universal frame screen - "Zont-1" and "Zont-2 distorting screens - MRS radio transparent screen (for concealment of radar stations)
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The shatior universal frameless screen is used to conceal largesize vehicles. Its set consists of 2 sets, MKS-2M or K -S type and accessories for its packaging. UMK universal frame screen is used to camouflage vehicles, to create decoys of buildings and screens for large areas.  The "Zont-1" and "Zont-2" distorting screens are used to camouflage large-size vehicles and installations by concealing them partially, distorting their shape and shadows. - Ugol - Piramida - Sfera-PR


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enemy

enemy

Installation of linear jamming screens made of WMD corner reflectors (m): a) on -shaped supports. 14-15 man/hours are necessary to install 1 km b) suspended on wires. 3-4 man/hours are necessary to install 1 km

Fig 2.10. 2-1

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2.11 Engineer technique of simulation when making dummy positions and troops disposition areas. The purpose of enemy forces to locate, target, and destroy deep targets, thereby degrading friendly capabilities while adding offensive momentum to attacking enemy forces. Enemy commanders focus their most sophisticated sensors in search of HVTs. By attacking these targets, enemy forces hope to deny adequate C2, combat support, or resupply operations to forward friendly forces throughout the battlespace. Therefore, properly employing at key fixed installations, such as command posts (CPs) and Army aviation sites (AASs) is essential to survival on a battlefield. HVTs fall into two general classifications fixed installations and relocateble units.
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PLANNING The characteristics of many such targets are unique and require the creative application of simulation principles and techniques. Therefore, the Dummy planning process presented in this section is not intended to impose a procedure that must be followed at all costs. Rather, it suggests a logical sequence that has proven successful over time.

Each commander should develop his units plan based on an awareness, if not a comprehensive assessment, of the detectable EM signatures emitted by HVTs under his command. He should evaluate these signatures by considering the enemys expected reconnaissance capabilities (airborne and groundbased),knowledge of the target area, and weapons-on-target capability
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OBJECTIVE The plan increases target survivability within the limits of available resources. The design procedure must systematically determine which features of a given target are conspicuous, why those features are noticeable, and how CCD principles and techniques can best eliminate or reduce target signatures. CCD should decrease the effectiveness of enemy attacks by interfering with its target-acquisition process, which in turn increases target survivability. PLANNING PROCESS The steps outlined below provide guidance for designing simulation plans for HVTs. The detailed planning approach is applicable in any situation where CCD employment is necessary, but more so when the plans include HVTs.
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Step 1. Identify the threat. Identify the principal threat sensors, weapon-delivery platforms, and likely directions of attack.

Step 2. Identify critical facilities. Identify critical HVTs. Include those that are critical from an operational standpoint and those that may provide reference points (cues) for an attack on more lucrative targets.

Step 3. Evaluate facilities. Once the critical HVTs are identified, focus efforts on identifying the target features that might be conspicuous to an enemy RSTA. Consider multispectral (visual, thermal, NIR, radar) signatures in this assessment.The seven recognition factors) are an excellent framework for conducting this assessment. Include a review of area maps, site plans photographs, and aerial images of the target area.

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Step 4. Quantify signatures(determine the quantity ) the multispectral signatures that are emitted by high-value facilities. Base the quantification on actual surveys of critical facilities, using facsimiles (exact copy)of threat sensors when possible. Specify the EM wavelengths in which targets are most vulnerable, and develop signature-management priorities. (having both electrical and magnetic properties) Step 5. Establish simulation and dummy goals. Establish specific SD goals for HVTs. These goals should indicate the signature reduction (or increase) desired and the resources available for SD implementation. Base these goals on the results of steps 1 through 4. Change the SD goals as the planning process develops and reiterate(repeat) them accordingly. Step 6. Select materials and techniques. Select SD materials and techniques that best accomplish signature-management goals within logistical, maintenance, and resource constraints. Expedient, off-the-shelf materials and battlefield by-products are not identified in this manual, but they are always optional SD materials
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Step 7. Organize the plan. Develop a SD plan that matches goals with available materials, time and manpower constraints, and operational considerations. If the goals are unobtainable, repeat steps 5 and 6 until a manageable plan is developed. Step 8. Execute the plan. Once a feasible SD plan is developed, execute it. Store temporary or expedient materials unnoticeably. Conduct deployment training on a schedule that denies enemy intelligence teams the opportunity to identify the countermeasures or develop methods to defeat the SD. Step 9. Evaluate the SD. The final step in the SD planning process is to evaluate the deployed SD materials and techniques. Important questions to ask in this evaluation include the following: Does SD increase the survivability of HVTs? Does deployed SD meet the signature-management goals outlined in the plan? Is deployed SD operationally compatible (well matched) with the treated target(s)? Are SD materials and techniques maintainable within manpower and resource constraints?
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Simulation used to make dummy positions and troops disposition area are:- decoys of weapons and vehicles, - radar corner reflectors, - heat simulators, and other means. At areas where decoys and dummy installations are located it is necessary to simulate signs of life activities typical for the given object: tracks of vehicles, artillery fire, ammunition boxes, light, smoke, flashes, movement of vehicles. 2.11.1 dummy positions and areas Use decoys to confuse an enemy. The goal is to divert enemy resources into reporting or engaging false targets. An enemy who has mistakenly identified decoys as real targets is less inclined (tending) to search harder for the actual, well-hidden targets.
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2.11.2 The keys to convincing an enemy that it has found the real target are Decoy fidelity (simplicity), which refers to how closely the multispectral decoy signature represents the target signature.  Deployment location, which refers to whether or not a decoy is deployed so that the enemy will recognize it as typical for that target type. For example, a decoy tank is not properly located if it is placed in the middle of a lake.


A high-fidelity decoy in a reasonable location often fools an enemy into believing that it has acquired the real target. Deploying low-fidelity decoys, however, carries an associated risk. If an enemy observes a decoy an immediately recognizes it as such, it will search harder for the real target since decoys are generally deployed in the same vicinity as the real targets.
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Credible , high-fidelity decoys specifically designed to draw enemy fire away from real targets should be deployed to closely represent the multispectral signatures of the real targets. 2.11.3 On dummy positions and areas the following is installed decoys of vehicles and weapons, trenches for guns and combat vehicles  shelters for vehicles and personnel, dummy (artificial) trenches and communication trenches, dummy roads. Above the dummy trenches for vehicles cover-screens are installed with the use of standard camouflage sets, with WMD corner reflectors and heat simulators under the cover-screens.


When simulating camouflaged vehicles, outside the trench additionally basic structure of a decoy of vehicles is installed made of poles with suspension of 3-4 corner reflectors and 4 heat simulators and cover screen over them.
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Fig 2.11.3-1 Dummy of Russian S-300P Missile

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Fig 2.11.3-2 Dummy of Russian S-3oo surface to air missile

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Fig 2.11.3-3 Dummy Tank

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Fig 2.11.3-4 Dummy SU-27

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Fig 2.11.3-5 Dummy F-16

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In case of preliminary preparation of defense, soil decoys can be installed in dummy areas and positions. The s and dummy installations should be realistic, be of the same size as the real objects.

Dummy soil roads are made by removing the top layer of soil. Columned routes are simulated by repeated running of tracked and wheeled vehicles. The WMD corner reflector is used to create radar identifying features of decoys of vehicles. For this purpose a certain quantity of WMD corner reflectors (depending on the type of the simulated vehicles) are installed in the middle of each decoy at the height of 1-1.5 m. To simulate metal and reinforced concrete bridges, dams, such corner reflectors as Piramida and pneumatic Sfera-PR are used. They can be installed both on water and land.
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Ugol corner reflectors are used to simulate large ground objects. Up to 30% of organic vehicles and installations should be simulated, if in forest Up to 50%, if in open terrain Up to 80% - if in desertsavanna terrain.

2.12 Protection and camouflage of targets from enemy highprecision weapon. High- accurate weapons (HAW) are an advanced type of conventional weapons which include firing and strike means based on both guided and self-homing ammunition and missiles capable with the first shot (launching) to hit targets with the probability higher than 0.5. High-accurate weapons are combined with automated systems of reconnaissance and control into reconnaissance -striking (firing) complexes
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The main method of radar camouflage of troops (objects) from HAW-reconnaissance means is the use of the zones (lines) of radar invisibility formed by natural screens. To conceal moving vehicles, routes of movement should be selected within the limits of zones (lines) of invisibility. The movement of combat vehicles along open sections of roads should be camouflaged with linear jamming screens made of: WMD corner reflectors, metal grids, frame screens filled with branches, small-size trees, mats made of local materials. Thickness of the mats should be: - not less than 3 cm (if made of fresh brushwood with leaves) - 6 cm (if made of dry brushwood) - 5 cm (poles) - 12 cm (straw)
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High-Accuracy Weapon
up to 1 -1 , -52

4*1500,3*200,3*400 KT

up to 400 KT

up to 400 KT Minuteman 0,4,5,55 KT Pershing-II Pershing-I Lance Honest John artillery 2, 10, 20 KT 2-10 KT

km

up to 10000

higher than 1000

800-200

40 - 20

12 - 8

8- 4

5-29

40

80 - 100

200 2500 49

11500

km 15000

If vehicles are disposed in the place of enemy radar observation, the parapet of the shelter for vehicles (from the enemy side) is increased by 110-120 cm in height with the use of soil, sand bags, brushwood, etc. with the aim of anti-radar camouflage. Vehicles are protected against the means of destruction with infra-red guidance heads by reduction of thermal radiation of the vehicles with the help of thermo reflecting covers with thermo reflecting screens, by installation of dummy thermal targets (LTTs) and thermal traps on the routes of movement and in concentration areas.

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