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Indian industries spends billions of dollars on warehousing, inventory control, physical distribution, production management etc. In 1980s, problems like: Labor shortage, increased global competition, shortage & rising cost of energy, need for increased productivity, increased cost of carrying inventories, increased attention to quality & reindustrialization influences the need for improved management.
According to the need of improved management of materials in the factory & warehouse, production management is included in Material Management. MATERIAL MANAGEMENT: it is procuring, storing, handling, controlling, packaging, inspecting & transporting materials as well as providing customer service. In general: it can be defined as providing safely the right amount of the right material at the right place, at the right time, and at the right cost without damage.
Today PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT is much more than simply handling material. It involves: Handling material Storing material Controlling material Traditionally Production Management has been manifested with references to manufacturing as value adding & Production Management as cost adding. In 1980s, Productivity, Quality and Inventories represent three major targets of opportunity.
Today we have factories with segregated technology. We need technologically integrated factories. It will become a reality in individual companies only if strategic manufacturing plans are developed & such plans include material handling strategies. Attempts by industries to implement automation in manufacturing have tended to create islands of automation, rather than automated systems. Robots, flexible manufacturing systems, numerically controlled machine centres etc.are good examples.
INVENTORIES
Inventory is a list for goods and materials, or those goods and materials themselves, held available in stock by a business. Inventory are held in order to manage and hide from the customer the fact that manufacture/supply delay is longer than delivery delay, and also to ease the effect of imperfections in the manufacturing process that lower production efficiencies if production capacity stands idle for lack of materials.
The attention being paid to inventory management by Toyota Production System (Japan). Just-in-Time:- it refers to production of the necessary materials being performed JIT. Each process must accurately produce the required amount of product within a carefully controlled period of time. Autonomation:- More than one defects control. It is realized by quality control of the products & the autonomous defects control established through quality circles. Kanban:- It is the information system supporting JIT. The type & quantity of material required are entered on a material requisition form called a kanban.
Andon:- It is an electric board that is visible to every plant employee. It is used by employees to signal the need for assistance & prevent a stoppage of the assembly line. Yo-I-Don:- it means ready, set, go. It provides one method of smoothing the flow in a process. According to MONDEN-in its simplest terms, the Toyota production system might be interpreted as a special case of material requirements planning.
Material Control
It is required to reduce in-process inventories. Material control includes not only traditional inventory control, but also the location of material in in-process storage, and its orientation. Previously noted, in batch manufacturing 95% of the manufacturing cycle spends as in-process inventory. Proper planning of the storage & control is the key to an effective manufacturing system.
Apple and Strahan note, parts that comprise these inventories are typically stored in a manner that makes poor use of building space, provides limited accessibility to individual part numbers, and represents a low level of location control. Factors governing in-process storage by Apple & Strahan : 1. Inventory size and allocation 2. Unit load design 3. Inventory location 4. Control of status, location, and quantity 5. Storage mode.
System Productivity
Productivity is not always enough, with rapid technological advancement & futuristic manufacturing equipment & processes, networked systems tend to become more & more complex. And this has necessitated organizations to revisit their systems & procedures as to how effective & efficient they prove to be.
Analytical Supply Chain Management Solutions Scientific ABC analysis Dynamic control of Inventory Dynamic scheduling-fulfillment-based planning through ERP Broad based Outsourcing
CAPITAL PRODUCTIVITY
Capital:- It refers to financial wealth, especially that used to start or maintain a business, sometimes referred to as Cash flow. Capital deployed in plant, machinery, buildings, distribution system etc.& it need to be productive. Reasons for low productivity: Demand fluctuations Uncertainties of production owing to breakdowns Inventories
Various Methods Of Capital Productivity: Outsourcing Methods of Improvement Balancing of workstations Rationalization of packaging methods Quality circles
LABOR PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity: proper utilization of available resources to achieve the best results with minimum cost. Labor productivity: It is defined by the OECD to be "the ratio of a volume measure of output to a volume measure of input. Output per worker corresponds to the "average product of labor" and can be contrasted with the marginal product of labor, which refers to the increase in output that results from a corresponding (marginal) increase in labor input.
TRAINING
The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. The dictionary meaning of Training is practical education in any profession or art.
TRAINING
In practical terms, Training would mean imparting competencies to do a particular act in a particular manner.
A life office would like to impart training to its prospective clients and the existing clients in certain processes that would ensure smooth relationship between the clients and the life office.
TRAINING continue..
So, we can say that Training will:-
Optimization at every stage is necessary to derive competitive advantage. To optimize, Advanced methodologies in aspect s like material handling, scheduling, Just In Time, Lean Manufacturing, packaging, logistics get the support of data base management systems, online transmission & processing of information that initiate & follow activities.
CAD is the software aids in creating or modifying an existing design. Images of different components can be seen as assembled ,section-view etc. with great accuracies. With it we can send drawings via internet or intranet to concerned person. Corrections & incorporations can be made very quickly.
Split-case order: Fulfillment of orders which need different merchandise in different quantities requires that cases will have to be split, and pieces picked, repacked in cartons & ship to the customer. Mechanization: it helps in improving identification, pick-up & repacking the materials in addition to relieving monotony of the workers.
ROUTING: when orders are routed among the zones where picks are required, we call them Routing the picks. When orders are routed from zone to zone, in a particular order, whether any picks are there or not, we call them Chaining. When multiple zones are covered simultaneously in different zones we call them parallel routing.
When split-case is executed it becomes necessary that the merchandise is repacked for shipment to meet the requirements of the customers. In first method, they are picked & packed. This method is used where customer use the merchandize directly.
CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
D iscrete Order Picking or B atch Order Picking Z one picking or T our picking BS Batch order picking-sort immediate BM Batch order picking- sort immediate ZR Zone picking with routing ZC Zone picking with chaining ZP Zone picking in parallel. For example: BSDZCA- batch order picking, sort immediate discrete order picking, zone picking with chaining and Assemble.
2. Display Light- These computer activated lights are used to direct order selectors to items & locations to pick order or batch requirements. They call for the attention of the personnel & alert them.
Split case picking & packing functions & the space required for them can be broadly categorized as1. On line storage 2. Replenishment aisles 3. Picking aisles 4. Packing work space 5. Material handling space
Mechanization Costs Picking and Packing costs Order assembly and packing system costs.
THANKS.
OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Operations management is an area of business that is concerned with the production of goods and services, and involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient and effective. It is the management of resources, the distribution of goods and services to customers, and the analysis of queue systems. APICS The Association for Operations Management also defines operations management as "the field of study that focuses on the effectively planning, scheduling, use, and control of a manufacturing or service organization through the study of concepts from design engineering, industrial engineering, management information systems, quality management, production management, inventory management, accounting, and other functions as they affect the organization"
Management activities encompasses in Operation Management People- direct or indirect workforce; Parts- the components, sub-assemblies or even products. Processes- methodologies, technology, tooling, fixtures for establishing, maintaining & improving productivity; Planning & control- information management system which initiates, directs, monitors & collects feedback to enable efficient use of resources.
SCOPE OF OPERATIONS
Operations research plays an increasingly important role in both the public and private sectors. Operations research addresses a wide variety of issues in transportation, inventory planning, production planning, crew planning, communication network design and operation, computer operations, financial assets and risk management, revenue management, market clearing and many other topics that aim to improve business productivity.
OPERATION STRATEGY
OPERATIONS: It is one of the major functions of any business organization Marketing discovers the destination for the product or service that is produced. The operations functions should be guided by strategies which are consistent with the organization strategy. COMPETETIVENESS is at the core of all strategies. Different functional areas with their own capabilities & constraints have to be integrated for the overall corporate strategies. Operation Strategy is formulated to leverage the advantages, absorb the consequences of the variable nature of various functions & provide a dependable implementation programme.
Formulation of Strategy
Formulation of Strategy depends on the assessments of strengths, understanding of the weaknesses, the nature of external environment & the resilience of the internal environment. The policies derived from the operations strategy should be amenable to go along with other functions. ORGANIZATION STRATEGY should be such that the strategies of different functions are designed to lend support to one another.
Purpose of Strategies
To leverage the companys advantages To prepare for the eventualities of uncertain external happenings To maximize the chances of success in the endeavors To ensure effective & efficient process To avoid loss The actual activities which result in outcomes are called Operations.
The Operations Strategy would consider the following: Additional machinery or sub-contracting Methods to improve productivity Revamping assembly lines Measures to improve motivation Promoting existing employees or hire new ones Identifying & developing new suppliers Look for opportunities to reduce costs
Decision making is the crucial management function. Decisions commit the organization & its members to perform activities which have financial repercussions & affect the functioning of others who are connected with those.
Factors which form the basis of decision making: Environmental Scanning Core Competencies
Environmental Scanning- Becoming aware about the threats & opportunities and their impact on the firm by a process of analysis. Core competencies- The unique strengths on the basis of which the entrepreneur started the organization.Some additional strengths & competencies have been acquired to augment the existing business built. The developments and improvements both in knowledge and skills make the core strengths better.
CORE PROCESSES
Core processes of an organization are determined by the core competencies. Four main core processes are: Customer relationship New product/ service development Supplier relationship Order fulfillment
DIFFERENTIATION STRATEGIES
Differentiation is a process by which a company distinguishes itself from its competitors and their offerings. The difference should be perceived by the customers as- important, distinctive, superior & affordable. Nonetheless, they have to make the companys offerings I.e. products & services profitable.
Types Of Benchmarking
Process benchmarking- Business Process Financial benchmarking Performance benchmarking Product benchmarking Strategic benchmarking Functional benchmarking
Benchmarking Operation
Planning Analysis Integration Action It is necessary to set achievable targets keeping in view the availability of resources, technology and spread awareness about the importance of what is attempted & how success improves the image of the company.
The BCG Growth-Share Matrix is a portfolio planning model developed by Bruce Henderson of the Boston Consulting Group in the early 1970's. It is based on the observation that a company's business units can be classified into four categories based on combinations of market growth and market share relative to the largest competitor, hence the name "growth-share". Market growth serves as a proxy for industry attractiveness, and relative market share serves as a proxy for competitive advantage. The growth-share matrix thus maps the business unit positions within these two important determinants of profitability.
This framework assumes that an increase in relative market share will result in an increase in the generation of cash. The four categories are: Dogs - Dogs have low market share and a low growth rate and thus neither generate nor consume a large amount of cash. However, dogs are cash traps because of the money tied up in a business that has little potential. Such businesses are candidates for divestiture.
Question marks - Question marks are growing rapidly and thus consume large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they do not generate much cash. The result is a large net cash consumption. A question mark (also known as a "problem child") has the potential to gain market share and become a star, and eventually a cash cow when the market growth slows. If the question mark does not succeed in becoming the market leader, then after perhaps years of cash consumption it will degenerate into a dog when the market growth declines. Question marks must be analyzed carefully in order to determine whether they are worth the investment required to grow market share.
Stars - Stars generate large amounts of cash because of their strong relative market share, but also consume large amounts of cash because of their high growth rate; therefore the cash in each direction approximately nets out. If a star can maintain its large market share, it will become a cash cow when the market growth rate declines. The portfolio of a diversified company always should have stars that will become the next cash cows and ensure future cash generation.
Cash cows - As leaders in a mature market, cash cows exhibit a return on assets that is greater than the market growth rate, and thus generate more cash than they consume. Such business units should be "milked", extracting the profits and investing as little cash as possible. Cash cows provide the cash required to turn question marks into market leaders, to cover the administrative costs of the company, to fund research and development, to service the corporate debt, and to pay dividends to shareholders. Because the cash cow generates a relatively stable cash flow, its value can be determined with reasonable accuracy by calculating the present value of its cash stream using a discounted cash flow analysis.
Under the growth-share matrix model, as an industry matures and its growth rate declines, a business unit will become either a cash cow or a dog, determined solely by whether it had become the market leader during the period of high growth. THANKS.
INTRODUCTION
A technique is a procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task: Technology, the study of or a collection of techniques Skill, the ability to perform a task Scientific technique, any systematic method to obtain information of a scientific nature
Production Techniques
o Production Techniques encompass the work systems, their design and the processes of planning & production control techniques. o Deploying existing resources, reinforcing them with new equipments, identifying new vendors, updating their technology, resolving quality problems, identifying bottlenecks in the flow of materials and information. o SUITABILITY of various techniques & their combinations has to be viewed with flexibility for increasing or decreasing capacity to meet the market compulsion.
Production Techniques
o Reducing inventory has become very important. Assurance of quality has become fundamental for an organizations existence because processes involved are automated & the flow cannot be interrupted. o From concept to product, the periods are shrinking. o Computerization and Information Technology are facilitating the various processes to make them accurate, timely & savings in cost.
All operation systems are based on the following criteria: o Output of the product- whether they are goods or services o Specification of the product- standards or customized o The flow pattern- whether it is job shop or batch production, assembly or continuous.
o o
Division of labor became necessary to achieve efficiencies & the jobs that became specialized.Invention of petrol & diesel led to mass production. Frederick Taylor introduces the science of management. Observation, documentation, analysis became the backbone of achieving efficiencies. Special purpose machines, numerically controlled machines and robots maximize the production. ASRS-automated storage & retrieval systems and AGVSautomated guided vehicle systems and many more automated systems cost huge sums but beneficial for long term benefits.
The global trends are favoring flexibility in the manufacturing systems. As the cost involved in changing the set up of automated flow lines are high, the Automated Flow Lines are considered only when the product is required to be made in high volumes over a relatively long period.
The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the production of small sets of products like those from a mass production. An Industrial Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) consists of robots, Computer-controlled Machines, Numerical controlled machines (CNC), instrumentation devices, computers, sensors, and other stand alone systems such as inspection machines. The use of robots in the production segment of manufacturing industries promises a variety of benefits ranging from high utilization to high volume of productivity.
The production of each part or work-piece will require a different combination of manufacturing nodes. The movement of parts from one node to another is done through the material handling system. At the end of part processing, the finished parts will be routed to an automatic inspection node, and subsequently unloaded from the Flexible Manufacturing System. Advantages Productivity increment due to automation Preparation time for new products is shorter due to flexibility Saved labor cost, due to automation Improved production quality, due to automation However, it is not always necessary that on increasing flexibility productivity also in
FACILITY MANAGEMENT
In business, facility management (or facilities management) is the management of building, estates which encompasses both building fabric and services. The services are sometimes considered to be divided into "hard services" and "soft services. Hard services includes such things as ensuring that a building's air conditioning is operating efficiently, reliably, safely and legally. Soft services includes such things as ensuring that the building is cleaned properly and regularly or monitoring the performance of contractors (e.g. builders, electricians).
FACILITY MANAGEMENT
The term "facility management" is similar to "property management" but often applied only to larger and/or commercial properties where the management and operation is more complex.
FACILITY LOCATION
Factors influencing plant location are: General Factors Availability of land Availability of inputs Closeness to market places Communication facilities Infrastructure- power, water Transport Government support- subsidies etc. Housing & recreation- educational facilities
Special Factors Economic stability- outside investments Cultural factors Wages Joint ventures- support of big time players
Methods for Plant Location:1. Rating Plan Method 2. Factor Rating Method 3. Point Rating Method 4. Break-Even Analysis 5. Centre of Gravity Method
Refer book for details.
FACILITY LAYOUT
Layout means the positioning of various equipments, machineries, department facilities etc to maximize productivity and valuable space utilization. It has to be considered with a view to accommodate additional machines.Different types of layouts are in vogue depending upon the product, process and the type of production. Always consider the Manufacturing systems while planning for Layout. It has to be considered with a view to accommodate additional machines. FACILITY LAYOUT IS OF TWO TYPES: Machine layout Product layout
MACHINERY LAYOUT
The processes involved in getting things done have to be detailed out in terms of materials required, the sequence of the various activities of the process & their movements from one location to another. In it the essence of planning is the determination of activities that need to be performed at a future date to meet demands that have been forecast based on market surveys. Another main consideration is the material handling that is required for the raw materials, goods in process and the finished goods.
PRODUCT LAYOUT
These are also called production lines or assembly lines. They are designed and laid out in such a way that only a few products are capable of being manufactured or assembled.Materials flow through the various facilities. These use special machines to perform specific operations to produce only one product at one time. So, companies set different set of machines for different operations. The operation times, the sequence of movements, routing procedures are highly standardized to meet production requirements which are synchronized with many such products to complete finished goods to meet demands. The skill required of the workers is low, supervision is minimal. Training needs are small. The MAIN concern is to keep a check on the processes so that QUALITY is assured.
Resources will have constraints in terms of their availabilityquantities and timeliness. Reasons why companies still build up inventories : Customer Service- created inventory helps speed up delivery, thus meeting the need of the customer. An old customer tends to stay with you if you are able to give immediate delivery or he may be tempted to try a new supplier. Ordering Cost- frequent reordering increases the cost of procurement. Higher quantities may bring in entitlement of discounts. Further price increases will not affect us. In the shop floor longer runs lead to higher productivity & minimize the set up costs. Labor & equipment utilization will be high as quantities produced per set up is high. Reduced transportation costs- both inbound & outbound.
INTRODUCTION
What is quality? Dictionary has many definitions: Essential characteristic, Superior, etc. Some definitions that have gained wide acceptance in various organizations: Quality is customer satisfaction, Quality is Fitness for Use.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American Society for Quality (ASQ) define quality as: The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy given needs.
WHY QUALITY?
Reasons for quality becoming a cardinal priority for most organizations: Competition Todays market demand high quality products at low cost. Having `high quality reputation is not enough! Internal cost of maintaining the reputation should be less. Changing customer The new customer is not only commanding priority based on volume but is more demanding about the quality system. Changing product mix The shift from low volume, high price to high volume, low price have resulted in a need to reduce the internal cost of poor quality.
WHY QUALITY?
Product complexity As systems have become more complex, the reliability requirements for suppliers of components have become more stringent. Higher levels of customer satisfaction Higher customers expectations are getting spawned by increasing competition.
Relatively simpler approaches to quality viz. product inspection for quality control and incorporation of internal cost of poor quality into the selling price, might not work for todays complex market environment.
Quality perspectives
Everyone defines Quality based on their own perspective of it. Typical responses about the definition of quality would include: 1. Perfection 2. Consistency 3. Eliminating waste 4. Speed of delivery 5. Compliance with policies and procedures 6. Doing it right the first time 7. Delighting or pleasing customers 8. Total customer satisfaction and service
Determinants of Quality
Quality of design: design means specifications of materials, finishes, characteristics & other features incorporated in products. So, design as per specifications or parameters. Conformance to design: degree to which manufactures product meets the parameters. Utilization conditions: It refers to the necessity of the customer being informed so that the purpose for which the product was made is realized. After sales service: to make sure that product is functioning as per expectations.
Second, All processes have equipments, tools, methodologies, movements, facilitating goods & people who have their behaviors exhibited depending on their knowledge, skills & abilities. To anticipate & plan for their proper designed performance within the permissible deviations so as not to affect quality is the mechanism for assuring quality. This is quality control system.
Q.C.TECHNIQUES
Techniques are specific activities & procedures adopted using data for determining a particular aspect of quality for arriving at decisions which are conclusive. Each technique is developed & checked by Senior consultant or personnel. Quality at the source: This concept of quality makes the production worker responsible for inspection of his own work & take corrective action. Since, inspection is done immediately after a job s done, the cause of the error with clarity & aids in faster rectification.
QC TOOLS
7 basic tools for achieving quality: 1. Flow chart 2. Check sheet 3. Histogram 4. Pareto analysis 5. Scatter diagram 6. Control chart 7. Cause & Effect diagram
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
Statistical procedure used in quality control. Acceptance sampling involves testing a batch of data to determine if the proportion of units having a particular attribute exceeds a given percentage. The sampling plan involves three determinations: (1) batch size; (2) sample size; and (3) maximum number of defects that can be uncovered before rejection of the entire batch. This technique permits acceptance or rejection of a batch of merchandise or documents under precisely specified circumstances.
ACCEPTANCE an important Acceptance sampling isSAMPLING field of statistical quality control that was popularized by Dodge and Romig and originally applied by the U.S. military to the testing of bullets during World War II. If every bullet was tested in advance, no bullets would be left to ship. If, on the other hand, none were tested, malfunctions might occur in the field of battle, with potentially disastrous results.
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
Definition of Lot Acceptance Sampling Dodge reasoned that a sample should be picked at random from the lot, and on the basis of information that was yielded by the sample, a decision should be made regarding the disposition of the lot. In general, the decision is either to accept or reject the lot. This process is called Lot Acceptance Sampling or just Acceptance Sampling The main purpose of acceptance sampling is to decide whether or not the lot is likely to be acceptable, not to estimate the quality of the lot.
Business Process
Business process is a total response that a business undertakes utilizing resources & delivering outputs that create value for the customer. The Business Process: Has a goal Uses specific inputs Delivers specific outputs, Collects resources, Performs a number of activities in some order; Creates value for the customer.
The Logical Process Model improves control on the access to data & identifies who is in possession of data at different nodes in the dataflow network that has been structured. Few of the logical modeling formats are given below: Process description- with task sequences & data addresses. Flow charts- with various activities & relationships Flow diagrams Function hierarchies Function dependency diagrams
Process definition also helps you know when a process should be broken into smaller, sequential processes. If the definition of a process is ambiguous or lengthy, it is usually a candidate for decomposing into sequential processes. All the functions are decomposed to processes, and all processes are ultimately decomposed into sequential processes.
Decision points- take decision between choosing the path or whether the process should continue or not. The points at which the process path divides creating two or more paths for activities combine & lead to another activity. The end of the process. We may have one or more. The model is built upon data that get input at various stages of the process, data that get accumulated at nodes for further distribution & identifying activities that go along the path.All through the diagrams we ensure that all data are made available and verify whether desired results are being derived. Logical Process Modeling will of great assistance to system architects & developers to produce efficient & scalable applications.
Logical Modeling
Logical modeling deals with gathering business requirements & converting those requirements into a model. The logical model revolves around the needs of the business, not the database, although the needs of the business are used to establish the needs of the database. Logical modeling involves gathering information about business processes, business entities (categories of data) & organizational units. Logical Modeling should accurately render a visual representation of the activities and data relevant to a particular business.The outcomes are- Entity Relationship diagram & Business process diagrams.
Physical Modeling
Physical modeling involves the actual design of a database according to the requirements that were established during logical modeling. Physical modeling deals with the conversion of the logical, or business model, into a relational database model. When physical modeling occurs, objects are being defined at the schema level. A schema is a group of related objects in a database. A database design effort is normally associated with one schema. The objects here are tables created on the basis of entities & attributes.The outcomes are server model diagrams showing tables & relationships with a database.
Business Analyst
His main responsibility is to collect in detail business problems, the requirements of the business people. He has to liaise between them to break down data, see through the logical steps that need to be taken and fill the gaps to enable the experts in technology to provide solutions. His knowledge, skills & functions are: Lead the team members to a consensus, Identify or gather the requirements of the business process that are critical, he needs to question concern people, verify the statements that are made, locate any gaps & arrange in the logical process for creating uninterrupted dataflow.
Identify the core requirements, Question business area experts & seek relevant information, Make sure that the requirements can be subjected to tests & the results are verifiable; analysts most important skill will be in his capacity to separate the grain from the chaff to know which are critical, vital & important bits of information from a huge mass of data he is confronted with.
Workflow Vs BPM
BPM is loosely coupled, not fixed like workflow. BPM is all about managing exceptions, about keeping them within your controlled business environment. Comparing BPM and Workflow management is like comparing a car and a train: a train(workflow) will get you from A to B, but you dont have many options on routing, on timing, and no exceptions are allowed. The route is planned in meticulous detail. It is capable of carrying large volumes of passengers. In a car(BPM), the passenger has autonomy and a direct interaction with the environment. The flexibility to get from A to B is also very much higher & can be changed at any time, depending on the circumstances.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT Project Management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. A project is a finite endeavor (having specific start and completion dates) undertaken to create a unique product or service which brings about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in sharp contrast to processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent functional work to repetitively produce the same product or service. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management philosophy, which is the subject of this article.
PMBOK (Project Management -- Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute PMI):"Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements." DIN 69901 (Deutsches Institut fr Normung German Organization for Standardization): "Project management is the complete set of tasks, techniques, tools applied during project execution"
Understanding Project Management The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while adhering to classic project constraintsusually scope, time and budget. The secondaryand more ambitiouschallenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet predefined objectives. A project is a carefully defined set of activities that use resources (money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication, motivation, etc.) to achieve the project goals and objectives.
MANAGEMENT- Management in business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals. Management comprises planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal.
PROJECT CYCLE- A project cycle basically consists of the various activities of operations, resources and the limitations imposed on them.
A project require huge investments which should not go waste A loss in any project would have direct or indirect impact on the society Prevent failures in projects Scope of the project activity may undergo a change Technology used may change during the course of project execution Consequences of negativity in project related problems could be very serious Changes in economic conditions may affect a project .
a) b) c) d) e)
Project management can be considered to have five dimensions Features Quality Cost Schedules Staff
Executing Processes
PROJECT MANAGER
A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. They have the responsibility of the planning, execution, and closing of any project. A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. The successful project manager focuses on this as his/her main concern and attempts to reduce risk significantly, often by adhering to a policy of open communication, ensuring that project participants can voice their opinions and concerns.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Budgeting and cost control Scheduling tasks Allocating resources Tracking project expenditures Ensuring technical quality Manage relations with the customer and company
PROJECT FAILURES
Project being initiated at random at all levels. Project objective not in line with business objective Project management not observed Project manager with no prior experience in the related project Non-dedicated team Lack of complete support from clients No prioritization of project activity from an organizational position One or more of the stages in the project mishandled Less qualified/ non-dedicated manpower Absence of smooth flow of communication b/w the involved parties
Projects may be completed with one or more of the following: 1. Stretched deadline 2. Over stresses team 3. Wasted resources 4. Unmet customer functional requirements 5. Overshot budget A good project management methodology provides a framework for the processes
Define the project Reduce it to a set of manageable resources Obtain appropriate and necessary resources Build a team to perform the project work Plan the work and allocate the resources to the tasks Monitor and control the work Report progress to senior management and/or the project sponsor Close down the project when completed Review it to ensure that the lessons are learnt and widely understood
Individuals and organizations That are actively involved in the project Whose interests may be affected (positively or negatively) by the outcome (success or failure) of the project Exert influence over the project and its results Players are also called stakeholders of the project Project manager: the individual responsibilities for managing the project Customer: the individual or organization who will use the products the end result of the project Performing organization: the enterprise whose employees are most directly involved in doing the work of the project Sponsor: the individual or group within or external to the performing organization that funds the project
Project Planning
Project planning is part of project management, which relates to the use of schedules such as Gantt charts to plan and subsequently report progress within the project environment. Initially, the project scope is defined and the appropriate methods for completing the project are determined. The main objectives of scoping boundaries are: 1. Define the project boundaries 2. Explicitly stating the objectives that the project will cover 3. Implicitly providing direction to the project and enabling assessment of the final products quality .
1. 2. 3. 4.
Context for the Project Purpose and Objectives of the Project Tasks, Milestones, and Deliverables Uncertainties, Risks and Opportunities, and Planned Responses 5. Critical Success Factors 6. Use GANTT Chart of tasks to monitor and control the project deliverables
PLANNING TOOLS
Project Organization and Structure Project Management Team Key Stakeholders Identify management level personnel who are official to the success Document the responsibilities of stakeholders Stage Teams Identify appropriate personnel required for the stage, define the team structure and appoint team leaders Business Key resources Determine training requirement Assess the capabilities and skills of all those identified as part
PROJECT PROCESSES
Project process is classified into two main categories: Project management process Project management process is defined by the organization. It describes and organize the work of the project. Product oriented process Product oriented process is defined by the life cycle. It specifies and creates products and related works.
PROCESS GROUPS
INITIATING PROCESSES PLANNING PROCESSES
CONTROLLING PROCESSES
EXECUTING PROCESSES
CLOSING PROCESSES
Process Interactions
The individual processes are linked and outputs 1. Inputs: it refers to the client documents converted to action plans to be acted upon. 2. Tools and techniques: It refers to the mechanisms applied on to the inputs to the inputs to create desired outputs 3. Outputs: It refers to the documents that are results of the process 4. Process Interactions Initiating Processes: Every process is initiated by management group decision which results in the next phase of the project.
Planning Processes
1. 2. 3. 4.
Planning has the major importance Plans are nothing planning is everything Planning processes are highly interdependent If the cost is unacceptable, scope and time may need to be redefined
Executing Processes
1. Interactions depend on the of the work 2. They are dynamic & dependent on Team innovations
Controlling Processes
1. Measuring project performance [time, cost, quality] 2. Identifying variances from the plan 3. Updating project plans 4. Taking corrective action
Closing Processes
1. Review of the project 2. Findings 3. Analysis of the project performance with
Customization
1. Large projects may need details A detailed project management plan might be necessary to indicate every detail in the initial stages. 2. Smaller projects may need relatively less details A detailed plan may not be required in the initial stages. 3. Process details might change for other reasons Resources identification might be required for scope definition.
PROJECT INITIATION DECISIONS ON THE ABOVE LEGAL APPROVALS FOR PROJECT DESIGN OF PROJECT & TENDER PREPARATIONS ASSESSMENT OF TENDERS ISSUING WORK ORDERS COMMENCEMENT OF WORK INFRASTRUCTURE, HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEM,ENT IN PROJECT EXECUTION OF PROJECT AS PER PLAN
INTRODUCTION
A production process may be considered very important in todays growing industries. The project managers have to keep in mind the various problems that may be encountered during the executing the project. Also the manager must understand the change processes in a project to bring about any changes, it has to be through a proper process plan of change. The important aspect of any such process introduction or any change is to execute it correctly and then review the process post execution and finally documenting.
The important tasks of this phases are as follows Specification requirements Analysis (SRA): It has to be conducted to determine the essential requirements of a project in order to achieve the target. Feasibility study: To analyze whether the project is technically, economically and practically feasible to be undertaken. Trade-off analysis: To understand and examine the various alternatives which could be considered Estimation: To estimate the project cost, effort required for the project and functionally of various processes in the project System design: Choose a general design that can fulfill the requirements. Project evaluation: Evaluate the project in terms of expected profit, cost and risks involved
MARKETING PHASE
A PROJECT PROPOSAL IS PREPARED BY A GROUP OF PEOPLE INCLUDING THE PROJECT MANAGER. THIS PROPOSAL HAS TO CONTAIN THE STRATEGIES ADOPTED TO MARKET THE PRODUCT TO THE CUSTOMERS.
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RISK MANAGEMENT
Risks are those events or conditions that may occur and whose occurrence has a harmful or negative impact on a project. Risk management aims to identify the risks and then take actions to minimize their effect on the project. Risk management entails additional cost. Hence risk management can be considered cost-effective only if the cost of risk management is considerably less than the cost incurred if the risk materializes.
Risk Prioritizing -Rank the risk based on the probability and effects on the project; for example, a high probability, high impact item will have higher rank than a risk item a medium probability and high impact. In case of conflict use judgment. Risk Mitigation-Select the top few risk items for mitigation and tracking. Refer to a list of commonly used risk mitigation steps for various risks from the previous risk logs maintained by the project manager and select suitable risk mitigation step. The risk mitigation step must be properly executed by incorporating them into the project schedule.
PROJECT CLOSURE
COMPLETION OF ALL ACTIVITIES AND BENEFITS
It implies that on successful completion of a project, it has not drifted from its intended course and plans. Otherwise it would have resulted in a change and may also kick start another project affecting the main project. The project member are acknowledgement for the completion of the project, motivating them to take up more projects wherein the members would be able to confidently handle and take care of all the problems based upon their learning from earlier project.
POST IMPLEMENTATION REVIEW After every stage of a project is implemented, it may so happen that there could be a minor change or modification which has to be reviewed which has to be reviewed. A review may by in the following form: 1. Final product review 2. Outstanding project work review 3. Project Review 4. Process review
INTRODUCTION
In todays world, a manager is often faced with the challenges of newer competition arising out various business facets. His task is to understand the problem & quickly analyze it and solve it. For this the manager must know the recent trends in the Industry to apply them to his problem solving methodology. A problem may lead to another problem if not addressed properly & hence the entire focus should be understand and develop new solution techniques to tackle the problems.
An information system dealing with project management tasks is known as PMIS. It mainly aimed at providing the management at different levels with information related to the system of the organization. It helps in decision-making in arriving at optimum allocation of resources. It also holds schedule, scope changes, risk assessment and actual results. A good PMIS is possible to be developed from the team members and not from the systems administrators of the company.
Aspects of PMIS
The four major aspects of a PMIS are: 1. Provide information to the major stakeholders is the right information at the right time. 2. Assist the team members, stakeholders,managers with necessary information and summary of the information shared to the higher level managers. 3. Assists the managers in doing what if analyzes about project staffing, proposed staffing changes and total allocation of resources. 4. Help organizational learning by helping the members of the organization learn about Project management.
2.PROJECT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS CYCLE: In order to improve project performance, the company must assure quality and quality control at every stage of the project throughout the project life cycle. Various Stepsa. Planning for review b. Conducting the review c. Take actions on findings d. Do continuous improvement e. Critical Success factors f. Results and benefits of the Project Quality reviews
PROJECT MANAGER: He enable the necessary adjustments and taking the actions needed to achieve the project goals finishing the project on time, scope and budget.Project manager process helps in terms of discipline and control, for the customer because, in the way that process is anticipating potential problems to the customer and finally for the sponsor.
MACRO ISSUES
1. Evolving Key Success Factors Upfront: In order to provide complete stability to fulfillment of goals, one needs to constantly evaluate from time to time, the consideration of what will constitute the success of completing a project and assessing its success before completion.The KSF should be evolved based on a basic consensus document (BCD) KSF will also provide an input to effective exit strategy (EES).Exit here does not mean exit from the project but from any of the drilled down elemental activities which may prove to be hurdles.
2. Empowerment Title (ET): ET reflects the relative importance of members of the organization at three levels Team members empowered to work within limits of their respective allocated responsibilities, the major change from bureaucratic systems is an expectation from these members to innovate and contribute to time and cost. Group leaders are empowered additionally to act independently towards client expectation and are also vested with some limited financial powers. Managers are empowered further to act independently but to maintain a scientific balance among time, cost, expectation and perception apart from being a virtual advisor to the top management.
3. Partnering Decision Making(PDM):It is a substitute to monitoring and control. A senior with better decision making process will work can be done to manage the future better from past experience. The key here is the active participation of members in the decision making process. This step is most difficult since junior members have to respond and resist to being pushed through sheer innovation and performance.
5. Knowledge Factor(K): Knowledge is the most powerful mover of the wheels of progress. K factor is an index of the extent to which one can manage today with yesterdays knowledge content and also the extent to which todays knowledge will be used tomorrow. It is important for leaders to recognize the knowledge potential of the younger members.It is the task of every team members to maximize the K-factor in all directions.
INTRODUCTION
Supply chain management (SCM) is the management of a network of interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required by end customers. Supply Chain Management spans all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods from point-of-origin to pointof-consumption (supply chain).
SUPPLY CHAIN
Domain Applications
SCM can be easily applied & integrated with ERP systems Design systems like auto-CAD, Pro-E R & D systems ISO 9000 systems Accounting & financial systems Costing systems Manufacturing systems
Tactical Sourcing contracts and other purchasing decisions. Production decisions, including contracting, scheduling, and planning process definition. Inventory decisions, including quantity, location, and quality of inventory. Transportation strategy, including frequency, routes, and contracting. Benchmarking of all operations against competitors and implementation of best practices throughout the enterprise. Milestone payments Focus on customer demand.
Operational Daily production and distribution planning, including all nodes in the supply chain. Production scheduling for each manufacturing facility in the supply chain (minute by minute). Demand planning and forecasting, coordinating the demand forecast of all customers and sharing the forecast with all suppliers. Sourcing planning, including current inventory and forecast demand, in collaboration with all suppliers. Inbound operations, including transportation from suppliers and receiving inventory.
Production operations, including the consumption of materials and flow of finished goods. Outbound operations, including all fulfillment activities and transportation to customers. Order promising, accounting for all constraints in the supply chain, including all suppliers, manufacturing facilities, distribution centers, and other customers...
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3. INVENTORY DECISIONS- Inventories exist at every stage of the supply chain as either raw materials, semifinished or finished goods. They can also be in process between locations. Their primary purpose is to buffer against uncertainties. 4. TRANSPORTATION DECISIONS- The best choice of the mode is often found by trading-off the cost of using the particular mode of transport with the indirect cost of inventory associated with that mode. Since transportation is more than 30% of the logistics costs, operating efficiently makes good economic sense. Shipment sizes routing & scheduling of equipment are the key in effective management of the firms transport strategy.
5. SUPPLY CHAIN MODELING APPROACHES- Due to the enormity of data requirement, and the broad as scope of decisions, various models provide approximate solutions to the decisions they describe. To facilitate a concise review of the literature, and at the same time attempting to accommodate the polarity in modeling, we divide the modeling approaches into 3 areas: network design, rough cut methods & simulation methods. a) Network design method; This model cover the 4 major decision areas, provide normative models for the strategic decisions. It focus more on the design aspect of the supply chain, the establishment of the network and the associated flows on them.
b) Rough Cut Methods; It give guiding policies for the operational decisions. These models typically assume a single site and add supply chain characteristics to it, such as explicitly considering the sites relation to the others in the network. c) Simulation Based method- With this method a comprehensive supply chain model can be analyzed, considering both strategic & operational elements. However, one can only evaluate the effectiveness of a pre-specified policy rather than develop new ones.
The Web offers your supply chain enormous potential and entirely new methods for streamlined coordination between your business and channel partners, including third- and fourth-party providers. Put simply, the Internet enhances supply chain performance and supply chain is crucial to your ecommerce success. As the supply chain evolves in the information age, the Internets capability to support tight coordination between business and channel partners means that all the information, transactions, and decisions that are the essence of synchronized supply chains will flow through the Web. Using the Internet to connect the systems of your supply chain partners will become the medium through which the essential processes of managing and synchronizing your supply chains are carried out.
As you know, in the traditional supply chain, buying and selling materials means establishing long term relationships with vendors, distributors and retailers, with multiple inventory sites, long lead-times and fixed margins. Yet today, the marketplace, being the oldest of all business activities, is being reinvented. Companies can now buy and sell across a wide spectrum of emerging Internet enabled marketplaces. This has become necessary due to customers ever increasing demands. Customers whether they are business customers or individual consumers are looking beyond cost as the sole arbiter of value. They are demanding innovation and personalization of not only the products but of the associated service and delivery.
Integrated Networking of Information- A well designed SCM could be made to function better through a scientifically designed system of information networking. Multidimensional Financial management cockpit- While it is extremely difficult for the most efficient finance manager to take decisions. SCM would be in a position to place him a management cockpit to take decisions easily.
Control of Inventory and idling of assets- SCM integration with finance will provide an ideal platform for clarity with regard to the exact level of inventory which is the bone of any organization. The top management will then provided with greater clarity with regard to the balance between justified and unjustified inventory. The finance manager through SCM would be in a position to provide proactive guidelines to various functionaries. THANKS.
MATERIAL HANDLING
Material Handling is the movement, storage, control and protection of materials, goods and products throughout the process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal. The focus is on the methods, mechanical equipment, systems and related controls used to achieve these functions. The material handling industry manufactures and distributes the equipment and services required to implement material handling systems. Material handling systems range from simple pallet rack and shelving projects, to complex conveyor belt and Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (AS/RS).
Assembly lines are best suited for the study and analysis of the Line Balancing Problem, called Assembly Line Balancing (ALB). All ALB are categorized by Ghosh & Gagnon as to falling into four categories as under: SMD- Single Model Deterministic SMS- Single Model Stochastic MMD- Multi/Mixed Model Deterministic MMS- Multi/Mixed Model Stochastic
ORDER PICKING
Order picking is process by which items or products for which supply is to be made have to be retrieved from specific storage location. It is found to take 60% of labor activities in the warehouse. Since it is critical to the business to meet customers demand expeditiously and accurately, lot of attention is being given to this aspect of operations. In the supply chain: storage, retrieval and delivery do not add value to the product, but are necessary.
Horizontal Travel: These are in the aisle, picker to part systems. The picker, a worker walks or rides a vehicle and picks the item or product and puts into the cart or vehicle. He may also pick an place the item on a conveyor. The storage system could be pallet racks, shelves, storage drawers or gravity flow racks. Person Abroad: In this system the picker is on a platform of the vehicle, he can move up as also horizontally along the aisle.
Part to Picker: These are mechanized systems. Here a storage/retrieval device carries the trays or bins to the person picking. These act on the instructions received through a remote control device with the picker. More than one picker can also access the system. Special Equipment: For high throughput and space efficiency special equipment are made which are in the form of moveable shelves, rotary racks, mobile shuttles that travel in lanes, which has dispensing mechanisms that eject items on a conveyor belt. Workplace Equipment: Items can be kept on a work bench and be picked up. The cart also are used to keep items for being picked up.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Design considerations arise due to: Total number of products that are to be stored. Number of products received per shift. Total numbers retrieved per shift. Labor force. Management Information System Variability in: Sizes of bins, racks etc. Choices b/w carts, carousals, vehicles, conveyors, automatic item pickers can be made as also the space for locating and moving them.
ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with designing according to human needs, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human wellbeing and overall system performance. Ergonomics is a science concerned with the fit between people and their work. It takes account of the worker's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, equipment, information and the environment suit each worker.
ASPECTS OF ERGONOMICS
There are five aspects of ergonomics: safety, comfort, ease of use, productivity/performance, and aesthetics. Safety - Medicine bottles: The print on them could be larger so that a sick person who may have impaired vision (due to sinuses, etc.) can more easily see the dosages and label. Ergonomics could design the print style, color and size for optimal viewing. Comfort - Alarm clock display: Some displays are harshly bright, drawing ones eye to the light when surroundings are dark. Ergonomic principles could redesign this based on contrast principles.
Ease of use - Street Signs: In a strange area, many times it is difficult to spot street signs. This could be addressed with the principles of visual detection in ergonomics. Productivity/performance - HD TV: The sound on HD TV is much lower than regular TV. So when you switch from HD to regular, the volume increases dramatically. Ergonomics recognizes that this difference in decibel level creates a difference in loudness and hurts human ears and this could be solved by evening out the decibel levels. Voicemail instructions: It takes too long to have to listen to all of the obvious instructions. Ergonomics could address this by providing more options to the user, enabling them to easily and quickly skip the instructions. Aesthetics - Signs in the workplace: Signage should be made consistent throughout the workplace to not only be aesthetically pleasing, but also so that information is easily accessible.
Value Engineering
Value engineering (VE) is a systematic method to improve the "value" of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of value engineering that basic functions be preserved and not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing value improvements. Value engineering is sometimes taught within the project management or industrial engineering body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a systems outputs is optimized by crafting a mix of performance (function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their customers.
Value engineering is sometimes taught within the project management or industrial engineering body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a systems outputs is optimized by crafting a mix of performance (function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their customers. Value engineering began at General Electric Co. during World War II. Because of the war, there were shortages of skilled labor, raw materials, and component parts. Lawrence Miles and Harry Erlicher at G.E. looked for acceptable substitutes. They noticed that these substitutions often reduced costs, improved the product, or both. What started out as an accident of necessity was turned into a systematic process. They called their technique value analysis.
Value engineering is often done by systematically following a multi-stage job plan. Larry Miles' original system was a six-step procedure which he called the "value analysis job plan." Others have varied the job plan to fit their constraints. Depending on the application, there may be four, five, six, or more stages. One modern version has the following eight steps: Preparation Information Analysis Creation Evaluation Development Presentation Follow-up
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The aim of value engineering is to effect economies by investigating every opportunity & discovering new materials,methods to achieve high quality performance. The aim of Value Engineering is listed as: Product Simplification Better and less costly material Improved product design High efficiency in the processes
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2. SUPPLIER EVALUATION AND CERTIFICATION Evaluation is done for the processes and quality assurance measures.A first hand assessment by a team should look into the following facilities which are part of the manufacturing system: Material procurement Inspection and issue procedures Production planning and control system Quality control methods Process of design & evaluation Management information system Labor relations & compensation system Culture of productivity & quality
Summary
Some organizations empower their suppliers with self-certification which means that the inspection conducted by the supplier is accepted as the inspection done by the organization's inspectors. The result that we will be able to treat the supplier as our partner and this enhances involvement and cooperation and the resultant synergy produces quality.Suppliers are taken into confidence to achieve reliable supplies and improve profits.
UNIT-15
QUANTITATIVE MODELING AND WORKFORCE MANAGEMENT
Introduction
During management decision-making, two approaches should be kept in mind: Qualitative and Quantitative. QUALITY of the decision depends on the individuals knowledge, analytical capability and judgment.It is suitable for small matter, whose consequences are not very serious. But decisions which involves complex issues and the data is varied I.e. factors are different fields having different impacts on the result, we try to QUANTIFY the data.For e.g.: We make models, apply quantitative techniques and try to conduct activities so that minimum disruptions take place. The workforce that conduct activities have to allocated work, trained and motivated for improving performance.
Quantitative Approach
Solving a problem using models consists of the following steps: 1. Definition of the problem- Determine the purpose of studying the problem. 2. Constructing a mathematical modelReformulate the physical problem into a form which can be analyzed.We convert it into a model. 3. Testing the model and its solution
Quantitative Models
1.LINEAR PROGRAMMING: This technique is often used for optimizing a given objective like profit or revenue maximization or cost minimization. When there are limited resources and they have to meet competing demands, distribution of the resources is the critical issue. 2.TRANSPORTATION MODEL: It is concerned with goods from manufacturing centers or warehouses which have to be supplied to depots or retail outlets. The demand & supply position of the places where they are required or produced and the cost of transportation is considered in the model. To economize we use this model. 3. ASSIGNMENT MODEL: Allocating jobs or persons to machines, awarding different projects to contractors, so that maximum returns occur or less expenses are incurred calls for the use of this model.
4. INVENTORY CONTROL MODEL:Inventory models consider the frequency of placing orders, the quantities per order considering the cost of placing an order, the number of pieces that are to be kept in reserve, the rate of consumption, the lead time required for the supplier, costs involved in storage.Depending upon the probabilities of patterns of consumption and supply, we have different models which give solutions to optimize. 5. SIMULATION MODEL: These models are used when we will not be able to formulate mathematical models. So, we develop a model which resembles a real life situation and based on the pattern, we predict and plan our procurement, production, delivery etc. 6. PERT & CPM: When projects are undertaken with a number of activities, some happening in sequence, with gaps of weeks or months and some happening simultaneously & resources are of great variety needing a lot of coordination, it is important to estimate the time required for completion.Delayed completion may entail penalties. In this model we adopt special methods to make the system efficient.
WORKFORCE MANAGEMENT
Work management concepts of workers contribution for productivity.Productivity is achieved by creating an environment which is conducive for efficient working. By adopting good practices which instill a sense of purpose, cooperative behaviors & openness, workers become willing partners in the process of manufacturing, which gives them life and pride. Rewards are important for recognizing good work that are done.For that purpose measurement of work and determining efficiency levels are important.
WORK PRACTICES
Work practices are ways of doing any work which has been in vogue and found to be useful. These are determined by motion and time study conducted over years and found to be efficient and practiced. Any method improvement that is conducted may change the practice but only after trials have shown that they increase the comfort of the worker and get the job done faster. WORK ENVIRONMENT Work environment in which tasks are performed affects productivity greatly. The combination of temperature, humidity and air movements produce a level of comfort or discomfort considering whether they are within a range.These depend on the conditions to which employees are accustomed. A temperature range of 24 to 32 degree Celsius would be suitable.Good illumination at the work place helps productivity.
WORK STUDY
When analysis of work methods is conducted during the period when a job is done on a machine or equipment, we say that work study is being conducted. The study helps in designing the optimum work method and standardization of the work method. This study enables the methods engineer to search for better methods, higher utilization of man and machine and accomplishment of higher productivity. This study gives an opportunity to the workmen to learn the process of study and will be able to offer suggestions for improved methods. This encourages workmen participation.This course is in alignment with the principle of continuous improvement and helps the organization in the long run.
WORK MEASUREMENT
It can be defined as a systematic application of various techniques that are designed to establish the content of work involved in performing a specific task. The task is performed by a qualified worker.ILO defines a qualified worker as one who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, possessing the required intelligence and education and having acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality. With this we arrive at the standard time for a task.This will be used to fix performance rating of other workers.
WORKFORCE PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is the ratio of the number of pieces produced to the number of hours spent on them. This takes into consideration a number of things like machine capability, workers skill, his motivation, the environment. Various methods by which productivity is sought to be improved, like: Measure all aspects across all functions of the organization, so that all personnel that nobody is spared or favored. Uniformity and fairness are guaranteed to ensure performance. Establish reasonable goals of production. They should be neither to low for letting complacency or too high to be attempted. Treat complaints about the working conditions as opportunities to make corrections and seek higher productivity.
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SUMMARY
Models represent a physical system in a mathematical form so that by changing the variables, depending on the factors under consideration, we will be able to predict the effect on the outcomes. These are used to take decisions for deployment of resources so that optimization is achieved.