SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC STUDY

DEFINITION
Language can be studied at a given point in time or over time. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.

Structural linguistics concern the:

-Phonology (sounds)

-Morphology (words) -Syntax (sentence structure) -Semantics (meaning) -Pragmatics or grammar (rules)

An important distinction between langue and parole (F. de. Saussure); Langue (language or mother tongue) refers to the linguistic system itself while while parole (speech) the manifestation of the actual use of the linguistic system

Distinctions:

(1) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realization of langue. (2) Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech. (3) Langue is the code, and parole is the massage. (4) Parole is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or writing. Langue is the abstract knowledge

DEDUCTIVE THEORIES AND PSYCHOLOGY

Sapir believes in the deductive theories and psychological approach to grammar explanation; He believes that each language should be described in its term based on basic categories (nouns and verb) and basic grammatical processes (ordering of words) which has universal elements; Grammar resulted from the economy of thought and speech; Yet no language system is always consistent Sapirs interest was in the relations between external grammatical and internal psychological processes

BEHAVIORAL PSCHOLOGY: STIMULUS-RESPONSE MODEL Bloomfield (1933) constructs a model that describe processes that take place in the mind; The stimulus-response model supports the claim that language was a habit of verbal behavior which consisted of a series of stimuli and response; He believes that the description of a language should begin with phonology;

DESCRIPTIVE OR STRUCTURAL LINGUISTIC

after Bloomfield, other descriptive linguists tried to separate grammar and semantics completely; phonemic analysis involved the consideration of stress, pitch, and juncture, or degree of separation (suprasegmental phoneme)

TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR : Discourse Analysis

Transformation is another process of analysing discourse whereby connected speech or writing can be analysed instead of the whole sentence; This process would enable linguists to analyse active/passive sentences and relationship among discontinuous elements

According to Chomsky , a person is able to produce infinite number of sentences and that language can be used creatively; Transformationalists are interested in rules for sentence formation which account for a native speakers linguistic intuition;

a. Phrase Structure Rules

- Phrase structure rules are simple rules which

b. Transformational Rules

allow for substitutions and for the expansion of grammatical categories.

- operates on the structure of a given string or sentence, and converts it into a related structure. E.g. passive into active

c. Morphophonemic Rules

- the final written or spoken form of sentences

TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR : Theory of Syntax

A grammar is said to consist of the following parts: (a) A syntactic component (word order) (b) A semantic component (meaning) (c) A phonological component (sound)

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Functional

varieties of Language
a language with many varieties, all have the legitimate functions in different social situations; The ability to vary style and to recognise the social value of different forms is part of an individuals competence.

WORDS AND WORD GROUPS

Jespersen separates words and word groups are divided into three: Primary (nouns) Secondary (verbs and adjectives) Tertiary (particles) Degree of connection called juncture (single composite idea) and nexus (connection of two ideas) are also dealt with;

Some subordinate member (clauses/phrases) can be raised to higher level and the type of connection is altered; nominalisation is the conversion of sentences into noun phrases; E.g. The doctor arrived can be changed into The doctors arrival

WORDS AND WORD GROUPS

Jespersen separates words and word groups are divided into three: Primary (nouns) Secondary (verbs and adjectives) Tertiary (particles) Degree of connection called juncture (single composite idea) and nexus (connection of two ideas) are also dealt with;

the dog barks furiously, the barking dog are ranked as: dog primary barking and barks secondary furiously - tertiary
the connection between barking and dog is a juncture, forming a composite unit (a noun phrase), whereas the connection between dog and barks is a nexus, a joining of two units (subject and verb).

In some instances, subordinate members can be raised to a higher level and the type of connection altered; The conversion of sentence into noun phrase is called nominalisation; E.g. The doctor arrived can be changed into the doctors arrival

Form and meaning of words change over time; The change can be both organic and imitative sound changes and external sound changes; changes of form (sound) and meaning are often caused by having the majority of speakers on its side, or because it is more convenient or easier to carry out. some words change in two or more different ways, according to its surroundings;
E.g. the indefinite article an drops its /n/ before another
word beginning with a consonant, as in a man compared with an enemy

Some words resemble each other in terms of form and meaning; This may lead to modification by linguistic changes through either convergence or divergence changes; convergent changes cause the leveling of distinctions between the words in term of phonetic or to cause words to have similar meaning; e.g. no and know have both the same initial phonic /n/ (homomyms) buy and purchase re synonymous Divergent change cause a sound-change in the of, and off.

Isolation often leads to the creation of new grammatical categories; It detaches a word from its elements as in an idiom and a general sentence; The development of proper names out of common nouns and adjectives is also a process of isolation such as Brown and Smith as compared to brown and smith; the use of nouns and adjectives as Particles is also a process of isolation.

One principle of grammar of any language is to teach learners to express themselves with appropriateness in that language and to enable them to ascertain whether the phrase and form of construction, is right or not. (a) What is prescriptive grammar? (b) Why is there a need to teach grammar to our school children?

(a) it tells how people should use language in speaking and writing (b) a. Comprehensibility communicate meaning successfully b. Acceptability to be accepted into the community of native speakers c. The language of grammar is a shared language for talking about speech and writing

d. Knowing about grammar can help writers take control of their writing: they can craft and create because they understand what they are doing e. Knowing about grammar can help readers explore how texts operate and how their messages and effects are created