Active Components

Digital Electronics
Creating a Diode
When you connect electrically N-type and P-type silicon as
shown below, you find that the following happens and this
produces a useful effect.
p type n type
Negative Positive
The electrons in the N-type
will move across the
junction to recombine with
the holes in the P-type. This
would continue until the
regions were depleted of
carries (holes or electrons).
There are though two
factors which limit the
number which cross the
junction.
The value of potential at which the system stabilises is
about 0.6 volts for Silicon.

For Germanium (which was the first semiconductor
material used for electronic devices) the value is about
0.2 volts.

Let us look at what happens if we now place a voltage
across the PN junction.
Forward Bias.
V
p n
The voltage source will
attempt to drive electrons
around the circuit
anticlockwise (opposite
direction to conventional
current flow).
If V is less than the junction potential (Vj) for Si,
electrons flowing into the N-type will see the negative
barrier and therefore current flow will be extremely
small.
Diode equation
There exists a relationship between the voltage applied to
the diode and the current flowing through it. It has the
following form:
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
KT
Vq
o
e I I
where
I is the current flowing through the diode
Io is the reverse leakage current (typically 1 x 10
-10
A)
V is the applied voltage
q is the charge on an electron 1.602 x 10
-19
C
K is Boltzmanns Constant 1.38 x 10
-23
JK
-1
T is the absolute temperature (C + 273)
Semiconductor Theory
If Io = 1 x 10
-10
A then determine the how the current
varies with applied voltage.
V I
0.05 739pA
0.1 5.46nA
0.2 298nA
0.3 16.3A
0.4 889A
0.5 48.5mA
0.6 2.65A
0.7 145A
The graph shows this as a
plot of Current I against
Applied Voltage V.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Voltage
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
You can see that up to about 0.6
volts the current is relatively
small whilst above 0.6 the
current increases rapidly.
Terminal voltage v is negative


v is negative and a few times larger than
Current in the reverse direction is constant and
equal to and called saturation current.

Reverse-Bias PN Junction
0
I i ~
V
0
I
The pn junction excited by a constant-current source
I in the reverse direction. To avoid breakdown, I is
kept smaller than I
0
. Note that the depletion layer
widens and the barrier voltage increases by V
r
volts,
which appears between the terminals as a reverse
voltage.
Reverse-Bias PN Junction
Reverse Bias:
Drift current I
0
, indep.
of voltage,

I I I
D
=
0
Rectification.
This is the process of converting an A.C. input into a D.C.
output.
A.C. This is a signal that periodically changes polarity.
Examples include the mains voltage and signals generated
from acoustic sources.
AC mains signal
-400
-200
0
200
400
time
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
D.C. This type
of signal never
changes polarity
and so it will be
either positive
or negative.
Batteries will
generate D.C.
outputs.
Semiconductor Theory
There are three basic rectifier circuits:
Half Wave Rectification
Vp
L
O
A
D
The diode will remove the
negative half cycle leaving
only the positive. Though
the voltage is fluctuating
it is D.C.
Half Wave Rextified
time
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Vp
Full Wave Rectification
Vp
L
O
A
D
The diodes will remove the
negative half cycles from
the two waveforms, which
are 180 out of phase leaving
only the positive half cycles.
These are then summed to
give the output.
Full Wave Rectified
time
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Vp/2
This
produces a
smoother
output but
with a
reduced
voltage.
Bridge Rectification
Vp
L
O
A
D
The diodes direct
the flow to the
load differently
depending upon the
polarity of the
input A.C.
If the input is + on the top,
diodes 2 and 3 conduct.
+
-
+
-
If + on the bottom diodes
1 and 4 conduct.
This ensures that the polarity at the load never changes.
Semiconductor Theory
Bridge Rectified
time
v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Vp
Note that at any moment in time two diodes are
conducting which means that the output peak is
actually Vp 1.2v (2 x 0.6v)
Semiconductor Theory
DIODE TYPES

Zener diodes are used with reverse bias, making use
of the breakdown that occurs across a silicon junction
when the reverse voltage causes a large electrostatic
eld to develop across the junction.

Zener diodes are used for voltage reference purposes
or for voltage stabilisation

Varactor diodes are used for electronic tuning
applications

DIODE TYPES

Schottky diodes
A Schottky diode consists of a metal-semiconductor junction, in
which the semiconductor is usually silicon, and the metal can be,
typically, silver, aluminium, gold, chromium, nickel, platinum or
tungsten, or alloys of exotic metals.
The forward drop is small, only about 0.2 V compared to the 0.6 V
of a silicon diode.
They have very fast switching times, meaning
used in RF applications such as RF demodulation and in high-
frequency switch-mode power supplies.
Because of the low voltage drop, the diodes also make
excellent power rectiers, particularly for high-frequency supplies

DIODE TYPES

Schottky diodes
DIODE TYPES

LEDs

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) use compound Semiconductor
materials such as gallium arsenide or indium phosphide.

When forward current passes, light is emitted from the junction.

The colour of the light depends on the semiconductor material used
for the diode and the brightness is approximately proportional
to the size of forward current.

DIODE TYPES

LEDs

LEDs have higher forward voltages when conducting; around 1.6 V
to 2.2 V as compared to the 0.5 V to 0.8 V of a silicon junction.
The maximum permitted reverse voltages are very low, typically
only 3V.

A silicon diode must be connected across the LED if there is any
likelihood of reverse voltage (or an AC signal) being applied to the
diode.
A series resistor must always be used to limit the forward current
unless pulsed operation is used.
D
LED
DIODE TYPES

LEDs
Typical applications include remote controls and short-range
signalling

Note that the infra-red types emit little or no visible light.


D
LED
DIODE TYPES

Photodiodes
A pn diode the reverse current of which is dependent on the
amount of light falling on the junction

Photodiodes are constructed like any other diodes, using silicon,
but without the opaque coating that is normally used on signal and
rectier diodes.


Transistors
Modern active components are all based on transistors,
which were invented in 1948 by Brittain, Bardeen, and
Shockley.

A transistor is a semiconductor component with three
terminals. An input between two of the terminals can
alter the amount of current flowing to or from the third
terminal.


Semiconductor Theory
There are two main types of transistors, called
bipolar transistors and eld-effect transistors (FETs).


Even though the bipolar type was the rst to be used,
most modern electronics systems now, however, are
based on the FET, usually in integrated circuit (IC)
form.
Semiconductor Theory
The BJT
This is a device that makes use of two junctions in a crystal with a
very thin layer between the junctions.

The thin layer is called the base, and the type of BJT depends on
whether this base layer is made from P-type or from N-type
material
The symbol that is used on circuit diagrams for a bipolar transistor
is a useful reminder.

This shows three connections, labelled as emitter, collector, and
base, with an arrowhead on the emitter lead that points in the
direction of current.
Semiconductor Theory
If the base layer is of N-type material, the transistor
is a P-N-P type, and if the base layer is of P-type
material, the transistor is an N-P-N type.
The N-P-N type of transistor, is more widely used.

Note that, in the circuit symbol, the arrow on the
emitter lead points in the direction of positive current
ow. You can tell whether a transistor in a schematic
diagram is PNP or NPN by the direction of the arrow.
The differences lie in the polarity of power supplies
and signals rather than in the way that the transistors
act.

Semiconductor Theory
It is customary to reverse bias the base-collector
junction of a bipolar junction transistor
as shown below.
Note that this increases the width of the depletion
region.
The reverse bias voltage could be a few volts to tens of
volts for most transistors. There is no current
ow, except leakage current, in the collector circuit.
Semiconductor Theory
If voltage source is added to the emitter base circuit.
Normally we forward bias the emitter-base junction, overcoming the
0.6 V potential barrier.
This is similar to forward biasing a junction diode.

This voltage source needs to exceed 0.6 V for majority carriers
(electrons for NPN) to ow from the emitter into the base becoming
minority carriers in the P-type semiconductor.
Semiconductor Theory
If the base region were thick, as in a pair of back-to-back diodes, all
the current entering the base would ow out the base lead.

In our NPN transistor example, electrons leaving the emitter for the
base would combine with holes in the base, making room for more
holes to be created at the (+) battery terminal on the base as
electrons exit.

Semiconductor Theory
30
Collector
P N P
Emitter
Base
+
+
-
FB
RB
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (PNP)
90% of the current carriers passes through the reverse
biased base - collector PN junction and enter the collector of
the transistor.

10% of the current carriers exit transistor through the base.

31
Transistor Characteristic Curve
I
C

V
CE

Q-Point
I
B

0 uA
10 uA
20 uA
30 uA
40 uA
50 uA
60 uA
70 uA
80 uA
90 uA
Saturation
Cutoff
32
Analyzing The Transistor Operation Region:
Conduction, Saturation or Cutt-Off
Conduction For any transistor to conduct, two things must occur.
The emitter - base PN junction must be forward biased.
The base - collector PN junction must be reverse biased.
In this region the transistor presents an amplification in current (gain)
or , which relates collector current (I
c
) and base current (I
b
)
according to the following equation:
The ratio of collector current (I
c
) to base current (I
b
) is called (or h
fe
)

I
c
= I
b
(Equation 1)

It is also known that I
e
= I
c
+ I
b
(Equation 2)

Then: I
e
= ( I
b
) + I
b
=> I
e
= ( + 1) I
b
(Equation 3)

33
Analyzing The Transistor Operation Region: Conduction,
Saturation or Cutt-Off

Cut-Off Region When Ic is almost zero and the absolute
value of the Base-Emitter voltage is lower than 0.6 V (for
silicon transistors). When the transistor reaches this region,
the equations above are no longer valid.

Saturation Region When Vce is almost zero and the
absolute value of the Base-Emitter voltage is larger than 0.6
V (for silicon transistors). When the transistor reaches this
region, the equations above are no longer valid.
34
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation
When the input signal is large enough, the transistor can
be driven into saturation & cutoff which will make the
transistor act as an electronic switch.

Saturation - The region of transistor operation where a
further increase in the input signal causes no further
increase in the output signal.

Cutoff - Region of transistor operation where the input
signal is reduced to a point where minimum transistor
biasing cannot be maintained => the transistor is no longer
biased to conduct. (no current flows)
35
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation
Transistor Q-point
Quiescent point : region of transistor operation
where the biasing on the transistor causes operation
/ output with no input signal applied.
The biasing on the transistor determines the amount
of time an output signal is developed.
Transistor Characteristic Curve
This curve displays all values of I
C
and V
CE
for a
given circuit.
This curve is based on the level of DC biasing
that is provided to the transistor prior to the
application of an input signal.
The values of the circuit resistors, and V
CC
will
determine the location of the Q-point.
36
The transistor below is biased such that there is a
degree of forward bias on the base-emitter PN junction.

Any input received will change the magnitude of forward
bias & the amount of current flow through the
transistor.
Amplifier Operation
R
B

R
C

Q
1

+
0
+V
CC

Input Signal
+
0
Output Signal


TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS
In small-signal amplifiers the main factors are:

Amplification
Linearity
Gain

Since large-signal, or power, amplifiers handle relatively large
voltage signals and current levels, the main factors are:

Efficiency
Maximum power capability
Impedance matching to the output device
38
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is a device for increasing the
power of a signal.

An appliance or circuit that increases the strength of a weak
electrical signal without changing the other characteristics of the
signal.
Amplifier Types
Class A
The amplifier conducts through the full 360 of the input. The
Q-point is set near the middle of the load line.

Class B
The amplifier conducts through 180 of the input. The Q-point
is set at the cutoff point.

Class AB
This is a compromise between the class A and B amplifiers.
The amplifier conducts somewhere between 180 and 360 .
The Q-point is located between the mid-point and cutoff.

39
Amplifier Types

Class C
The amplifier conducts less than 180 of the input. The Q-
point is located below the cutoff level.

Class D
This is an amplifier that is biased especially for digital signals.
40
Class A Amplifier
The output of a class A
amplifier conducts for the full
360 of the cycle.

The Q-point is set at the
middle of the load line so that
the AC signal can swing a full
cycle.
41
Remember that the DC load line indicates the
maximum and minimum limits set by the DC
power supply.
Class A amps sound the best, cost the most, and
are the least practical. They waste power and
return very clean signals.
Class B Amplifier
A class B amplifier output
only conducts for 180 or
one-half of the AC input
signal.
The Q-point is at 0V on the
load line, so that the AC
signal can only swing for
one-half cycle.
42
Class AB Amplifier
This amplifier is a compromise between the
class A and class B amplifierthe Q-point
is above that of the Class B but below the
class A.

The output conducts between 180 and
360 of the AC input signal.
43
Class C
The output of the class C
conducts for less than 180 of the
AC cycle. The Q-point is below
cutoff.
44

Field-Effect Transistors

FETs have been available for almost as long a time as the
bipolar type, but they were not extensively used until
later.

Nowadays, the eld-effect type is used to a much
greater extent (in ICs) than the bipolar type,

The most important field-effect type is the metal-oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor, abbreviated to
MOSFET.



Metal Oxide Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFET)
The MOSFET is a form of eld-effect transistor which
has become the most commonly used type of transistor.

The MOSFET uses quite different principles.






There are three terminals, called source, gate, and drain,
with the voltage on the gate controlling the Current
between the source and the drain.


Metal Oxide Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFET)
The current owing in the gate is almost immeasurably
small.








Current can pass between two terminals called the
source and drain, and this current is controlled by the
voltage (not current) on a third terminal, the gate.






The important point about it is that there is no current
passing to or from the gate for either positive or
negative bias.

Metal Oxide Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFET)
The MOSFET uses quite different principles.

Current can pass between two terminals called the
source and drain, and this current is controlled by the
voltage (not current) on a third terminal, the gate.






The important point about it is that there is no current
passing to or from the gate for either positive or
negative bias.

Metal Oxide Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFET)







The power needed at the input of FET is very much
smaller than is needed for a bipolar transistor

Depending on the design of the MOSFET, a bias voltage
can be used or the MOSFET can be operated without bias.

MOSFETs do not provide as much amplification (voltage
gain) as bipolar transistors, and their uses were at one
time predominantly for digital IC circuits.

Specialized types of MOSFETs are now used in audio
ampliers and in tuning circuits for FM radios.


Metal Oxide Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFET)







There are various varieties of MOSFET, such as

PMOS P-type metal-oxide-semiconductor

NMOS N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET

CMOS - Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

All of these are used extensively in digital circuits.

The MOSFET is sometimes known as IGFET, with IG
meaning insulated gate.
A typical metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
amplifier circuit
Transistor Switching Issues

The analog uses of transistors, BJT or MOSFET, for
amplifier circuits require the designer to set the
correct bias, and use circuits that will provide the
nearest approximation to a straight-line graph of output
plotted against input.

These amplifier circuits all cause transistor to dissipate
power, because the optimum bias is usually with the
collector or drain voltage set to about half of the
steady voltage supply, and passing a current that is
about the amount that needs to be supplied.

Transistor Switching Issues
The principle of using a transistor and a load is at
the heart of most of the electronic circuits (called
analog or linear circuits) that existed before
digital circuits appeared.

Transistors are better suited to digital circuits.

The snag about using transistors for amplication
is that the output is never a perfect copy of the
input (though the imperfections can be made to be
very small).



Transistor Switching Issues

A graph of the signal voltage output against the
signal voltage input is not a straight line so the
transistor amplifier is not a perfectly linear
amplifier.

All linear amplier circuits suffer from dissipation
problem

When higher power outputs are needed transistors
have to be designed so that they can release their
heat through a metal casing, to metal ns (heat
sinks) that will dissipate the heat into the air.

Transistor Switching Issues

But air cooling, with or without a fan, is much more
common.

There are ways of improving this situation.

That is to use for working with digital signals
(pulses).

The power dissipation will be very low, particularly
if the transistor is switched on for only a short
time in each cycle.

Transistor Switching Issues
Transistors that are used for analog designs are
not as linear as we would like, and they dissipate
power, risking damage to the transistors.

The alternative way of using transistors is as
switches

This switching use of transistors is not suited to
linear amplifiers, but it is ideal for digital circuits

In this sense dissipation can be very low.


Integrated Circuits

Came about as manufacturers attenpted to manufacture
resistors, capacitors, and connections on the
same piece of semiconductor material, making it possible to
produce a complete circuit in one set of operations.

It is possible to make individual electronic components
reasonably reliable, but the weak point in large and
elaborate circuits is the number of connections that have
to be made between components.


Integrated Circuits

If you can replace 20 individual components by a single
component then, other things being equal, you have made
the circuit connections 20 times more reliable, and this is
what creating a complete circuit in one set of operations
amounts to.

Now circuits are created with several million components
on one small piece (chip) of silicon.

This device is the integrated circuit or IC.

We can now buy complete circuits on a single tiny chip of
silicon that are vastly more reliable than anything we had
ever imagined.
Integrated Circuits

ICs are mainly for digital circuits, though there are also
many types of linear (amplier) ICs.

In addition to reliability the advantages of ICs include:
low cost,
small size,
low dissipation, and
predictable performance.

The size of a complete circuit is little more than that of a
single transistor



Linear Integrated Circuits

Though digital circuits have always accounted for a
majority of the ICs that have been manufactured, there
has always been one particularly important type of linear
IC, called the operational amplier (or opamp).

The circuit of an opamp is unimportant to the user, and
only the designer is likely to know exactly what goes on
inside the chip, so the user of an opamp works from a set
of gures that describe its performance.

The usual symbol is




Linear Integrated Circuits









A typical opamp circuit in which the gain (amount of
amplification) is determined by the values of resistors R
1

and R
2

Linear Integrated Circuits
The most common type of linear (analog) IC is the
operational amplier or opamp.

It has a very high gain value, and is normally used
in a circuit in which two external resistors control
the gain.

The snag is that heat dissipation limits the
complexity and power capabilities of an opamp.










Digital Integrated Circuits