SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGY OVERVIEW

Andrew S. Madof Orals Review - 2007 January 12, 2007

SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGY = Sedimentology (process) + Stratigraphy (response)

Sedimentology = study of PROCESSES (i.e. production, composition, transport, and deposition of sediment)
Stratigraphy = study of RESPONSES (i.e. inferring the controls on the spatial and temporal changes of strata) exact processes that created the rocks cant be know because only the rocks are left, not the processes

Sedimentation And Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks:
Form 75% of the rocks exposed at the Earths Surface Are the reservoirs for fossil fuels, iron and aluminum ores, and groundwater Record of Earths history

Sediment
Sediment = loose, solid particles and can be:
Terrigenous = fragments from silicates (igneous and/or metamorphics) Biogenic = fossils (carbonate - reefs; silicates - forams) Chemical = precipates (halite, gypsum, anhydrite, etc) - note: with chemical sedimentary rocks, evaporation > precipitation and/or supersaturation in closed basins (lakes or oceans)

Classified by particle size

Boulder - >256 mm Cobble - 64 to 256 mm Pebble - 2 to 64 mm Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm Clay - <1/256 mm

Grain size
Grain size (diameter) and grain-shape depend on: Transport media: rivers (pebbles bounce on river bottom, sand moved in traction, and silt/clay suspended in water column); oceans and lakes (near-shore and deep-water systems); glaciers (sediment moved on glacier bottom); wind (sand dunes) Distance from parent rock: the longer the distance traveled, generally the smaller and the more well-rounded the grains (due to higher kinetic energy) Mineral hardness: the harder the parent rock, the longer it will take the sediments to erode (example: silicates are more resistant to weathering and erosion than feldspars, and this is why beaches are often comprised of sand, not feldspar-rich sediments) Consider: sorting (= range of grain sizes) winds sort well (meaning grain sizes are very similar); glaciers sort poorly (meaning there is a large spread of grain sizes in glacial deposits)

Classification Of Sedimentary Rocks

DETRITAL (TERRIGENOUS) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
Mudstones Sandstones Conglomerates Breccias

DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

Classification Based On Particle Size a) All detrital rocks are clastic b) Sand and silt are predominantly quartz c) Finer-sized particles of clay minerals

SANDSTONES:
a) 25% of all sedimentary rocks
b) Sandstone particles (1/16-2 mm in diameter)

c) Practical uses of sandstones: buildings and reservoir for fossil fuels and groundwater

CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS:

a) Grain diameters larger than 2 mm
b) Conglomerates have rounded grains

c) Breccias have angular grains

Breccia (from fault motion?)

Sandstone

MUDSTONES:
a) More than half of all sedimentary rocks

b) Contain the smallest particles (0.004 mm in diameter)

c) Environments of deposition: lakes, lagoons, deep ocean basins, river floodplains d) Color variety of shale represents mineral composition e) Practical uses of shale: bricks, ceramics, cement, and oil shale

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary Rocks a) LIMESTONE (inorganic):
I) FORMATION II) Oolitic Limestone

III) Tufa
IV) Travertine

Lithification = Turning Sediment Into Sedimentary Rock

Diagenesis = Changes in the sediment due to increased heat, pressure, and circulating groundwater

Lithification = Compaction + Cementation

Compaction = Diagenetic process by which the weight of overlying materials reduces the volume of sedimentary body (decreases porosity)

Cementation & Recrystallization

Cementation: Precipitation of dissolved ions in the pore space a) calcium carbonate - CaCO3 b) silica - SiO2 c) iron compounds - Fe+2 and Fe+3 Texture of Rock: Formed by compaction and cementation of sediment particles

Recrystallization: recrystallization of certain unstable minerals into new, more stable minerals (this happens primarily in carbonates, when you start with carbonate mud [a.k.a. micrite] heat it up, then cool it to form larger grains [a.k.a. sparite])

Types of Sediment

Common Geological Environments

Locations of Subsurface Evaporites

Sedimentary Structures
Bedding (stratification): arrangement of sediment particles into distinct layers
A) Changes in sediment change bedding B) Changes in transport energy change bedding

Normally graded bedding: sediment layer (formed by a single depositional event) in which particle size varies gradually with the coarsest particles on the bottom (note: inversely graded bed = fines on bottom and coarse grains on top )

Cross-bedding and Mudcracks

Cross-bedding: sedimentary layers deposited at an angle to the underlying set of beds Surface sedimentary features
A) Ripple Marks: small surface ridges produced when water or wind flows over sediment after it is deposited

B) Mudcracks: occur on the top of a sediment layer when muddy sediment dries and contracts

Development of Cross-Bedding

Asymmetric and Symmetric Ripples

river or wind currents (uni-directional)

tidal currents (bi-directional)

Formation of Coal from Swamp Deposits

Formation of Coal from Swamp Deposits

Initial Deposits of Flat/Tabular Clay

Formation of Ooliths

Origin of Mud Cracks

Lithification of Sediments

Sedimentary Facies Formation

Sedimentary Facies Formation

Sediment in a Stream

Marine sedimentary environment

Landward Migration of Shoreline = Regression

(regression can either form due to 1) lower sea level or 2) shoreline building basinward [a.k.a. progradation])

Graded Bedding = Vertical Decrease of Sediment Size

Turbidity Current = PROCESS

Turbidite = RESPONSE