Water Harvesting

Sangati CPR work group

Why is Water Harvesting especially important for India?

In India, most water reaches the ground through rain.
In contrast, in Western countries (mid-latitude regions), 50% of water coming down (precipitation) is in the form of snow

Snow melts slowly and percolates into the ground and recharges ground water What about rain water?

Rain Water Pattern in India

Total annual rainfall in India: 400 million hectaremeters (area x height) Indias area: 329 million hectares If evenly spread, average height: 1.28m Actual distribution:
Highly skewed area-wise Thar desert receives less than 200mm annually, while Cherrapunji receives 11,400mm But almost every part of India receives at least 100mm annually

Key: even 100mm annual rainfall sufficient if harvested properly and where it falls

But.
Temporal distribution of rain in India also skewed Rainfall in India seasonal (unlike Western countries) Most of the country receives rainfall only for about 100 hours each year
Rough rule of thumb: #cm of rain = #hours rain received E.g.: Jodhpur receives 40cm of rain in about 40 hours

Half of this rainfall is precipitated in just 1/5 th of the total hours

E.g.: Jodhpur receives more than half its annual rain in about 8 hours

Natural implication of such skew:

Most of the rain water lost due to runoffs Unlike the west, very little water percolates into the ground Hence, the importance of harvesting structures for local selfsufficiency

Importance of Water Harvesting (contd.)

Ground water exploitation in India is very high
Area irrigated by ground water has increased 5 times since independence Tubewells and borewells constructed primarily by larger farmers, encouraged by cheap electricity drain ground water

Big dam projects have hardly had any positive impact

Very few surface irrigation initiatives completed since independence Too expensive to complete (estimate: Rs. 60000 crore to complete all ongoing major irrigation projects) More importantly, displace communities, Also reduce soil quality, lead to deforestation, all of which is detrimental to ground water levels

To find out: what is the proportion of land irrigated by ground water versus dams?

Importance of Water Harvesting (contd.)

Traditional water harvesting systems have withstood the test of time
Hence, worth taking seriously, of course in the current context and fully understanding their limitations

Example of the stellar success of traditional water harvesting systems:

The city of Jodhpur, even though several hundred years old and right in the middle of a desert, has never been evacuated for lack of water. The traditional water harvesting systems worked even in droughts when piped water supply failed Om Thanvi, a Rajasthan journalist found over a 45-day survey that
In villages where traditional water systems were maintained and used, there was no scarcity of drinking water even during times of drought In villages which relied purely on piped supply, the drying up of the Rajasthan canal meant an acute water crisis

Water Harvesting Structures in the Thar Desert and Central Highlands

Urban/rural water harvesting structures:
Tankas, Nadis, Talabs, Bavdis, Tanks, Rapats, Kuis, Virdas

Rural water harvesting structures:

Kunds, khadins

Tanka

Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks, found traditionally in most Bikaner houses. Built in the main house or in the courtyard. Circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which raiwater was collected. Tankas were often beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool. The water was used only for drinking. If in any year there was less than normal rainfall and the tankas did not get filled, water from nearby wells and tanks would be obtained to fill the household tankas. The tanka system is also to be found in the pilgrim town of Dwarka where it has been in existence for centuries. It continues to be used in residential areas, temples, dharamshalas and hotels.

Bavdi
Traditional stepwells are called vav or vavadi in Gujarat, or baoris or bavadis in Rajasthan and northern India. They were secular structures from which everyone could draw water. Most of them are defunct today. Stepwell locations often suggested the way in which they would be used.
Within or at the edge of a village - utilitarian purposes and as a cool place for social gatherings. Outside the village, on trade routes - resting places.

When stepwells were used exclusively for irrigation, a sluice was constructed at the rim to receive the lifted water and lead it to a trough or pond, from where it ran through a drainage system and was channeled into the fields.

Nadis, Talabs, Lakes

Nadis
Natural surface depression which receives rain water from different directions They receive their water supply from erratic, torrential rainfall. Can lead to heavy sedimentation and siltation
Trees can prevent some of this Dredging out the sediment before monsoon can also help

Can lose water by evaporation

Talabs, lakes are similar Toba is similar as well natural depression with a natural catchment area

Jhalara

Human-made tanks, found in Rajasthan and Gujarat Essentially meant for community use and for religious rites. Often rectangular in design, jhalaras have steps on three or four sides. The steps are built on a series of levels . The jhalaras collect subterranean seepage of a talab or a lake located upstream .

Kunds
Covered underground tank, developed primarily for tackling drinking water problems. Usually constructed with local materials or cement, kunds were more prevalent in regions where groundwater is saline. Before the onset of rains every year, meticulous care was taken to clean up the catchment of the kunds. Cattle grazing and entry with shoes into the catchment area of the kunds was strictly prohibited. The proximity of a kund to the house or village saved time and effort in searching for drinking water.

Kunds
Saucer-shaped catchment area with a gentle slope towards the centre where a tank is situated. Openings or inlets for water to go into the tank are usually guarded by a wire mesh to prevent the entry of floating debris, birds and reptiles. The top is usually covered with a lid from where water can be drawn out with a bucket. Kunds are by and large circular in shape, with little variation between the depth and diameter which ranges from 3-4.5 m. Lime plaster or cement is typically used for the construction of the tank The success of a kund depends on the selection of the site, particularly its catchment characteristics. An adequately large catchment area has to be selected or artificially prepared to produce adequate runoff to meet the storage requirements of the kund. The catchment size of kunds varies from about 20 sq m to 2 ha depending on the runoff needed and the availability of spare land. The catchment areas of kunds were made using locally available sealing materials such as pond silt, murrum, charcoal ash, and gravel. After clearing the soil surface of vegetation, the land was given a smooth gradient of 3-4 per cent towards the kund and the cleared surface was lined with pond silt obtained from nearby talabs or nadi beds. Rainfall data collected showed that areas with 100 mm of rainfall can use the kund system effectively.

Kui
10-12 m deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit gets wider as it burrows under the ground, so that water can seep in into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely kuchcha (earthen) structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations.

Khadin (or Dhora)

Practiced in Jaisalmer area
Not enough rain to fulfill crop requirements

Designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture. Its main feature is a very long (100-300 m) earthen embankment (khadin bund) built across the lower hill slopes lying below gravelly uplands. Sluices and spillways allow excess water to drain off. The khadin system is based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this watersaturated land for crop production.

Khadin
Requirements:
Catchment area: shallow, gravelly and rocky uplands with high runoff potential Flood plain or gently sloping plain area (khadin area) where soils are suitable for crop production

Before rainfall: kharif crop

If good rain, half grown kharif crop (e.g. bajra) used for fodder, and rabi crop grown instead

Khadin area few salts But area just outside khadin bund has salt accumulation; hence khadin farmers better off than non-khadin farmers Maintenance:
Grass on catchment, plus restricted cattle grazing Periodic cleaning of khadin area, including leveling the land plus possible removal of deposited gravel and sand

Virdas
Shallow wells dug in low depressions called jheels (tanks). They are found all over the Banni grasslands, a part of the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. They are systems built by the nomadic Maldharis, who used to roam these grasslands. Now settled, they persist in using virdas. These structures harvest rainwater. The topography of the area is undulating, with depressions on the ground. By studying the flow of water during the monsoon, the Maldharis identify these depressions and make their virdas there. They separate potable freshwater from unpotable salt water. After rainwater infiltrates the soil, it gets stored at a level above the salty groundwater because of the difference in their density. A structure is built to reach down (about 1 m) to this upper layer of accumulated rainwater. Between these two layers of sweet and saline water, there exists a zone of brackish water. As freshwater is removed, the brackish water moves upwards, and accumulates towards the bottom of the virda. There are also tank structures where the rainwater is collected and multiple virdas (wells-in-a-tank) are built

Rapats
A rapat is a percolation tank There is a bund to impound rainwater flowing through a watershed and a waste weir to dispose of the surplus flow. If the height of the structure is small, the bund may be built of masonary, otherwise earth is used. Rajasthan rapats, being small, are all masonry structures. Rapats and percolation tanks do not directly irrigate land, but recharges well within a distance of 3-5 km downstream. Silting is a serious problem with small rapats and the estimated life of a rapat varies from 5 to 20 years.

Began in Rajasthans Alwar district, which was a desert. To solve the water scarcity, the village collective started rainwater harvesting. They started by repairing the old checkdams or Johads. Johads are the traditional way of harvesting rainwater. A johad is a crescent-shaped bund which is built across a sloping catchment to capture the surface water before it runs off. Water accumulating in the johad percolates in the soil to augment the groundwater. The groundwater then can be used when there is no rainfall. Over the next few years, the water table in the ground have been increased through the Johads. The village needs water for drinking, sanitation, cooking, cattle and irrigation. Water is distributed based on the needs by the collective. The collective has the following rules:
All villagers must benefit from the efforts of the collective All decisions will be arrived after informal discussions All decisions will be strongly enforced Each person in the collective will be responsible to carry out the task Collective will use external help only for guidance and they will do all the work

Johads

Before RWH & reforestation

After RWH & reforestation

Johad

Check dam

Johads
Johad collects water during monsoons Later used for cultivation Johads became the basis for community participation with general developmental impact fewer migrations, higher participation by women, micro-credit, etc. Decisions on johads taken in local gram sabhas

Health Hazards
Water quality of traditional water systems often does not satisfy drinking water quality standards
Faecal contamination of tankas Floating organic debris, weeds, etc. in tankas Excessive presence of chemicals such as fluorides and nitrates Breeding ground for mosquitoes

WHO estimates that 80% of all sickness and disease in the world is due to inadequate water and sanitation (from both piped and traditional systems)

Strategies for Improvement

Specifically:
Construction of water sources that cannot be contaminated by infected persons Filtration of water Disinfection through chemicals (such as chlorine)

Broadly
Community involvement, coupled with health education Protect the catchment area; fencing it off to keep out cattle and human beings from polluting the area Improvements in the design and construction of the catchment area, storage and withdrawal so as to reduce pollution Awareness regarding traditional water systems and their health impact

Points
Importance of reforestation Keeping cattle away from catchment Uthnau holes dug up in the stone quarries act as water tanks
Soil isnt very deep, mostly rocky land No trees Volunteers from outside very hard to find (remote area)
Volunteers need to not feel superior to the local tribals

Too Goria centric

Motivations for water harvesting

India too diverse for dams Working examples Modern technology potentially lead to regression Water crucial in India (50% people will suffer from lack of drinking water)