Digital Data Transmission

ECE 457
Spring 2005


Analog vs. Digital
Analog signals
Value varies continuously
Digital signals
Value limited to a finite set
Binary signals
Has at most 2 values
Used to represent bit values
Bit time T needed to send 1 bit
Data rate R=1/T bits per second
t
x(t)
t
x(t)
t
x(t) 1
0 0 0
1
1
0
T
Information Representation
Communication systems convert information into
a form suitable for transmission
Analog systemsAnalog signals are modulated
(AM, FM radio)
Digital system generate bits and transmit digital
signals (Computers)
Analog signals can be converted to digital signals.
Digital Data System
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-1 Block diagram of a digital data system. (a) Transmitter.
(b) Receiver.
Components of Digital
Communication
Sampling: If the message is analog, its converted
to discrete time by sampling.
(What should the sampling rate be ?)
Quantization: Quantized in amplitude.
Discrete in time and amplitude
Encoder:
Convert message or signals in accordance with a set of
rules
Translate the discrete set of sample values to a signal.
Decoder: Decodes received signals back into
original message



Different Codes

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Performance Metrics
In analog communications we want,
Digital communication systems:
Data rate (R bps) (Limited) Channel Capacity
Probability of error
Without noise, we dont make bit errors
Bit Error Rate (BER): Number of bit errors that occur
for a given number of bits transmitted.
Whats BER if P
e
=10
-6
and 10
7
bits are
transmitted?
) ( ) (

t m t m ~
e
P
Advantages
Stability of components: Analog hardware
change due to component aging, heat, etc.
Flexibility:
Perform encryption
Compression
Error correction/detection
Reliable reproduction
Applications
Digital Audio
Transmission
Telephone channels
Lowpass
filter,sample,quantize
32kbps-64kbps
(depending on the
encoder)
Digital Audio
Recording
LP vs. CD
Improve fidelity
(How?)
More durable and
dont deteriorate with
time
Baseband Data Transmission
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-2
System model and waveforms
for synchronous baseband
digital data transmission.
(a) Baseband digital data
communication system.
(b) Typical transmitted
sequence. (c) Received
sequence plus noise.

Each T-second pulse is a bit.
Receiver has to decide whether its a 1 or 0
( A or A)
Integrate-and-dump detector
Possible different signaling schemes?

Receiver Structure
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-3 Receiver structure and integrator output. (a) Integrate-and-
dump receiver. (b) Output from the integrator.
Receiver Preformance
The output of the integrator:



is a random variable.
N is Gaussian. Why?

+
+
=
+ =
}
+
sent is A N AT
sent is A N AT
dt t n t s V
T t
t
0
0
)] ( ) ( [
}
+
=
T t
t
dt t n N
0
0
) (
Analysis








Key Point
White noise is uncorrelated
2
) ! ?( ) (
2
)] ( ) ( [
) (
? ] [
] [ ] [ ] [
0 )] ( [ ] ) ( [ ] [
0
0
2
2
2 2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
T N
ed uncorrelat is noise White Why dtds s t
N
dtds s n t n E
dt t n E
Why N E
N E N E N Var
dt t n E dt t n E N E
T t
t
T t
t
T t
t
T t
t
T t
t
T t
t
T t
t
=
=
=

(
(

=
=
=
= = =
} }
} }
}
} }
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
o
Error Analysis
Therefore, the pdf of N is:



In how many different ways, can an error
occur?

T N
e
n f
T N n
N
0
) /(
0
2
) (
t

=
Error Analysis
Two ways in which errors occur:
A is transmitted, AT+N<0 (0 received,1 sent)
-A is transmitted, -AT+N>0 (1 received,0 sent)

Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-4 Illustration of error probabilities for binary signaling.



Similarly,


The average probability of error:


|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
}

0
2
0
/
2
) | (
0
2
N
T A
Q dn
T N
e
A Error P
AT
T N n
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
}

0
2
0
/
2
) | (
0
2
N
T A
Q dn
T N
e
A Error P
AT
T N n
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ =
0
2
2
) ( ) | ( ) ( ) | (
N
T A
Q
A P A E P A P A E P P
E

Energy per bit:


Therefore, the error can be written in terms
of the energy.
Define

T A dt A E
T t
t
b
2 2
0
0
= =
}
+
0 0
2
N
E
N
T A
z
b
= =

Recall: Rectangular pulse of duration T
seconds has magnitude spectrum

Effective Bandwidth:
Therefore,

Whats the physical meaning of this
quantity?
) (Tf sinc AT
T B
p
/ 1 =
p
B N
A
z
0
2
=
Probability of Error vs. SNR
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-5
P
E
for antipodal baseband
digital signaling.
Error Approximation
Use the approximation
1 ,
2
2
1 ,
2
) (
0
2
2 /
2
>> ~
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
>> ~

z
z
e
N
T A
Q P
u
u
e
u Q
z
E
u
t
t
Example
Digital data is transmitted through a
baseband system with , the
received pulse amplitude A=20mV.
a)If 1 kbps is the transmission rate, what is
probability of error?

Hz W N / 10
7
0

=
3
2
3 7
6
0
2
3
3
10 58 . 2
2
4 10 400
10 10
10 400
10
10
1 1

= ~
= =

= = =
= = =
z
e
P
B N
A
z SNR
T
B
z
E
p
p
t

b) If 10 kbps are transmitted, what must be the
value of A to attain the same probability of
error?


Conclusion:
Transmission power vs. Bit rate

mV A A
A
B N
A
z
p
2 . 63 10 4 4
10 10
3 2
4 7
2
0
2
= = =

= =

Binary Signaling Techniques

Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-13
Waveforms for ASK, PSK, and
FSK modulation.

ASK, PSK, and FSK
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Frequency Shift Keying

=
=
= =
0 ) ( 0
1 ) ( ) 2 cos(
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
b
b c c
c c
nT m
nT m t f A
t f A t m t s
t
t

= +
=
= =
1 ) ( ) 2 cos(
1 ) ( ) 2 cos(
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
b c c
b c c
c c
nT m t f A
nT m t f A
t f t m A t s
t t
t
t

=
=
=
1 ) ( ) 2 cos(
1 ) ( ) 2 cos(
) (
2
1
b c
b c
nT m t f A
nT m t f A
t s
t
t
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
AM Modulation
PM Modulation
FM Modulation
m(t)
m(t)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
00
1Acos(wct)
What is the structure of the optimum
receiver?
Receiver for binary signals in
noise
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-6 A possible receiver structure for detecting binary signals in
white Gaussian noise.
Error Analysis
0s1(t), 1s2(t) in general.
The received signal:


Noise is white and Gaussian.
Find P
E

In how many different ways can an error occur?


T t t t t n t s t y
OR
T t t t t n t s t y
+ s s + =
+ s s + =
0 0 2
0 0 1
), ( ) ( ) (
), ( ) ( ) (
Error Analysis (general case)
Two ways for error:
Receive 1 Send 0
Receive 0Send 1
Decision:
The received signal is filtered. (How does this
compare to baseband transmission?)
Filter output is sampled every T seconds
Threshold k
Error occurs when:

k T n T s T v
OR
k T n T s T v
< + =
> + =
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
0 02
0 01

are filtered signal and noise terms.
Noise term: is the filtered white Gaussian
noise.
Therefore, its Gaussian (why?)
Has PSD:

Mean zero, variance?
Recall: Variance is equal to average power of the
noise process



0 02 01
, , n s s
) ( 0 t n
2
0
) (
2
) (
0
f H
N
f S
n
=
df f H
N 2
0
2
) (
2
}

= o

The pdf of noise term is:


Note that we still dont know what the filter is.
Will any filter work? Or is there an optimal one?
Recall that in baseband case (no modulation), we
had the integrator which is equivalent to filtering
with

2
2 /
2
) (
0
2 2
to
o n
N
e
n f

=
f j
f H
t 2
1
) ( =

The input to the thresholder is:



These are also Gaussian random variables; why?
Mean:
Variance: Same as the variance of N

N T s T v V
OR
N T s T v V
+ = =
+ = =
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
02
01
) ( ) (
02 01
T s OR T s
Distribution of V
The distribution of V, the input to the
threshold device is:

Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-7 Conditional probability density functions of the filter output
at time t = T.
Probability of Error
Two types of errors:




The average probability of error:

|
.
|

\
|

= =
|
.
|

\
|

= =
}
}

o
to
o
to
o
o
) (
1
2
)) ( | (
) (
2
)) ( | (
02
2
2 / )] ( [
2
01
2
2 / )] ( [
1
2 2
02
2 2
01
T s k
Q dv
e
t s E P
T s k
Q dv
e
t s E P
k
T s v
k
T s v
)] ( | [
2
1
)] ( | [
2
1
2 1
t s E P t s E P P
E
+ =

Goal: Minimize the average probability of
errror
Choose the optimal threshold
What should the optimal threshold, k
opt
be?
K
opt
=0.5[s
01
(T)+s
02
(T)]

|
.
|

\
|

=
o 2
) ( ) (
01 02
T s T s
Q P
E
Observations
P
E
is a function of the difference between the two
signals.
Recall: Q-function decreases with increasing
argument. (Why?)
Therefore, P
E
will decrease with increasing
distance between the two output signals
Should choose the filter h(t) such that P
E
is a
minimummaximize the difference between the
two signals at the output of the filter

Matched Filter
Goal: Given , choose H(f) such
that is maximized.
The solution to this problem is known as the
matched filter and is given by:

Therefore, the optimum filter depends on
the input signals.


) ( ), (
2 1
t s t s
o
) ( ) (
01 02
T s T s
d

=
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 0
t T s t T s t h =
Matched filter receiver
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-9 Matched filter receiver for binary signaling in white
Gaussian noise.
Error Probability for Matched
Filter Receiver
Recall
The maximum value of the distance,

E
1
is the energy of the first signal.
E
2
is the energy of the second signal.






|
.
|

\
|
=
2
d
Q P
E
) 2 (
2
12 2 1 2 1
0
2
max
E E E E
N
d + =
}
}
+
+
=
=
T t
t
T t
t
dt t s E
dt t s E
0
0
0
0
) (
) (
2
2 2
2
1 1
dt t s t s
E E
) ( ) (
1
2 1
2 1
12
}

=

Therefore,



Probability of error depends on the signal energies
(just as in baseband case), noise power, and the
similarity between the signals.
If we make the transmitted signals as dissimilar as
possible, then the probability of error will decrease
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 / 1
0
12 2 1 2 1
2
2
N
E E E E
Q P
E

1
12
=
ASK

The matched filter:
Optimum Threshold:
Similarity between signals?
Therefore,

3dB worse than baseband.
) 2 cos( ) ( , 0 ) (
2 1
t f A t s t s
c
t = =
) 2 cos( t f A
c
t
T A
2
4
1
( ) z Q
N
T A
Q P
E
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2
4
PSK

Modulation index: m (determines the phase
jump)
Matched Filter:
Threshold: 0
Therefore,
For m=0, 3dB better than ASK.

) cos 2 sin( ) ( ), cos 2 sin( ) (
1
2
1
1
m t f A t s m t f A t s
c c

= + = t t
) 2 cos( 1 2
2
t f m A
c
t
) ) 1 ( 2 (
2
z m Q P
E
=
Matched Filter for PSK
Principles of Communications, 5/E by Rodger Ziemer and William Tranter
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7-14 Correlator realization of optimum receiver for PSK.
FSK


Probability of Error:
Same as ASK
) ) ( 2 cos( ) ( ), 2 cos( ) (
2 1
t f f A t s t f A t s
c c
A + = = t t
T
m
f = A
) ( z Q
Applications
Modems: FSK
RF based security and access control
systems
Cellular phones