Chapter 9- The Nervous System Introduction -the nervous system is a collection of cells that help to coordinate all other

body functions i. also key in helping to maintain homeostasis ii. helps the body to respond to changing conditions -information is brought to the brain and spinal cord from both inside and outside of the body

i. the brain and spinal cord then stimulate muscles and glands in response to the information it received -nervous tissue consists of masses of nerve cells called neurons i. neurons are specialized to react to physical and chemical changes in their surroundings ii. the neurons transmit information in the form of electrochemical changes -these changes are called nerve impulses iii. nerve impulses are transmitted to other neurons and cells outside of the nervous system

-structure of a typical neuron (fig. 9.1) i. have a rounded area called the cell body ii. two types of extensions from the cell body: dendrites and axon iii. dendrites -may be many on each neuron -function is to receive electrochemical signals iv. axons -usually a single extension from the cell body -sends information to other cells and structures in the form of nerve impulses

-nerves are bundles of axons -nervous tissue also includes neuroglial cells (left) i. these cells provide physical support, insulation and nutrients for the neurons

-the organs of the nervous system can be divided into two groups i. central nervous system (CNS) -consists of the brain and spinal cord

ii. the peripheral nervous system (PNS) -composed of peripheral nerves that are connected to the CNS -the CNS and PNS carry out three functions: sensory, integration and motor General Functions of the Nervous System -the sensory function of the nervous system comes from sensory receptors

i. the receptors are at the ends of peripheral nerves ii. the receptors collect information by detecting changes inside and outside of the body iii. the sensory receptors convert information into nerve impulses -the impulses are transmitted to peripheral nerves -the peripheral nerves carry information to the CNS iv. at the CNS, the signals are brought together -the results of the signals include creating sensations, committing the signal to memory or producing thoughts that translate sensations into perceptions

v. we then make conscious and unconscious decisions that involve motor functions (muscles) -motor functions involve peripheral neurons that take information from the CNS to structures called effectors i. effectors are structures outside of the nervous system -includes muscles and glands -motor functions of the PNS are divided into two categories i. somatic nervous system- control conscious movement

-controls skeletal muscles ii. autonomic nervous system- effectors are involuntary -includes the heart, smooth muscle in blood vessels, and glands -regardless of what division is being used, the overall goal of the nervous system is to maintain homeostasis

Neuroglial Cells -neurons cannot exist without neuroglial cells (neuroglia)

i. neuroglia have many functions -fill spaces between neurons -provide structural framework -produce an electrical insulator called myelin -perform phagocytosis -neuroglia outnumber neurons i. unlike neurons, they can divide

-different types of neuroglial cells (fig. 9.3) i. microglial cells- scattered throughout the CNS -support neurons -phagocytize bacterial cells and cellular debris

ii. oligodendrocytes- line up along nerve fibers -they create an insulating layer of myelin called myelin sheaths -myelin wraps around the axons of neurons within the brain and spinal cord

iii. astrocytes- star shaped cells -found between neurons and blood vessels -provide nutritional support and regulate the amount of nutrients and ions within the nervous tissue -can form scar tissue when there is damage to the CNS

iv. ependymal cells -form a membrane that covers specialized regions of various brain parts -form the inner lining that enclose spaces within the brain and spinal cord

v. the PNS also has neuroglial cells called Schwann cells -form myelin sheaths around axons in the PNS

-astrocytes and blood vessels in the brain create the blood-brain barrier i. protects the brain from many different things -chemical fluctuations -prevents unwanted substances from reaching the brain ii. on the negative side, the bloodbrain barrier can prevent drugs needed to treat various brain conditions from reaching the brain tissue

Neurons -neuron structure i. neurons vary in size and shape, but all have common features ii. common features include: -cell body -dendrites that receive nerve impulses and conduct them to the cell body -an axon that conducts impulses away from the cell body

iii. dendrites are short and highly branched -they act as antennae that receive input from other structures

iv. the axon arises from a slight bump of the cell body called the axon hillock -the axon arises as a single structure but can have side branches i. these are called collaterals -the end of the axon may branch into fine extensions i. these extensions make contact with other cells

v. larger axons of peripheral nerves are enclosed in myelin sheaths -these sheaths are produced by Schwann cells -looks like a band-aid wrapped around a finger -there are many layers of myelin -the myelin is not continuous, so there are spaces between each sheath i. these spaces are called nodes of Ranvier (fig. 9.5)

vi. axons with myelin sheaths are called myelinated fibers -these neurons appear white i. form the white matter in the CNS vii. those that lack the sheaths are called unmyelinated -form gray matter in the CNS

-classification of neurons i. along with differences in size and shape, neurons vary in length and size of the axons and dendrites -also differ in the number of connections they make with other neurons ii. neurons can be classified into three groups based on their structural differences (fig. 9.6)

-multipolar neurons i. have many processes coming from their cell body ii. many dendrites and one axon iii. found within the brain and spinal cord -bipolar neurons i. have two processes each coming from one end of the cell body ii. one extension is the axon and the other is a dendrite iii. found in the eyes, nose and ears

-unipolar neurons i. have a single extension coming from the cell body ii. the extension splits into two branches -one branch acts as the axon and the other as the dendrite iii. the dendrite is called the peripheral process -located near the peripheral body part iv. the axon is called the central process -enters into the brain and spinal cord v. some cell bodies of unipolar neurons aggregate into masses called ganglia -these are always located outside of the CNS

iii. neurons also vary in function -can carry impulses to the brain and spinal cord -conduct impulses from neuron to neuron within the brain or spinal cord -transmit impulses out of the brain and spinal cord

iv. classification of neurons based on function (fig. 9.7) -sensory neurons (afferent neurons) carry impulses from a body part into the brain or spinal cord i. these neurons have sensory receptors on the tips of the dendrites -interneurons (association neurons) are found entirely within the brain or spinal cord i. these link up with other neurons

ii. transmit impulses from one part of the brain or spinal cord to another region -motor neurons (efferent neurons) carry nerve impulses out of the brain or spinal cord to effectors i. stimulate muscles to contract and glands to release secretions

Synapse -nerve impulses travel along complex nerve pathways i. the junction between two communicating neurons is called a synapse ii. the neurons are not in physical contact with each other -there is a small space between neurons called the synaptic cleft (fig. 9.8) iii. the nerve carrying the impulse to the synapse is called the presynaptic neuron -the neuron that receives the information is called the postsynaptic neuron

-the process of the impulse crossing the synapse is called synaptic transmission -synaptic transmission is accomplished by chemicals called neurotransmitters i. the end of the axon has extensions called synaptic knobs (fig. 9.9) -within the knob are vesicles with neurotransmitter called synaptic vesicles

ii. when a nerve impulse reaches the synaptic knob, some of the vesicles release neurotransmitter (fig. 9.9) -the neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft -bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane -the action of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic neuron is either excitatory (turns some processes on ) or inhibitory (turns some processes off)

Synaptic Transmission -some neurotransmitters are excitatory i. this means they will cause the postsynaptic neuron to become excited enough to generate a nerve impulse -others are inhibitory i. these will prevent the postsynaptic neuron from being excited and preventing a nerve impulse

-a single postsynaptic neuron may receive input from thousands of presynaptic neurons i. neurotransmitter released from some of these presynaptic neurons are excitatory, while others are inhibitory ii. neurotransmitters released from some of these presynaptic neurons are excitatory, while others are inhibitory

ii. the effects on the postsynaptic neuron depends on which type of neurotransmitter predominates -if more excitatory neurotransmitter is released, then a nerve impulse will occur in the postsynaptic neuron -if more inhibitory neurotransmitter is released, the postsynaptic neuron will not generate a nerve impulse -neurotransmitters i. about 20 neurotransmitters have been discovered ii. some neurons release only one type, while others can release 2 or 3 different types

iii. classes of neurotransmitters -acetylcholine- stimulates muscle contractions -monoamines i. includes epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin -group of modified amino acids i. includes glycine, glutamic acid and GABA -neuropeptides i. small proteins composed of short chains of amino acids

iv. acetylcholine and norepinephrine are always excitatory v. dopamine, GABA and glycine are always inhibitory vi. after the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft, some will be destroyed by enzymes -others will be taken back up into nearby neurons or neuroglial cells Impulse Processing -the way the nervous system processes and responds to nerve impulses depends on the organization of neurons and their axons in the brain and spinal cord

-neuronal pools i. neurons within the CNS are organized into neuronal pools ii. these are groups of neurons that make up hundreds of synapses with each other -the group works together to perform a common function iii. each neuronal pool receives input from neurons -the neurons may be part of this pool or other pools -as a group the neuronal pool will generate some type of output iv. neuronal pools can have excitatory or inhibitory effects on other neuronal pools or peripheral effectors, such as skeletal muscle

-facilitation i. a neuron or neuronal pool can receive both excitatory and inhibitory input ii. if the net effect is excitatory, but not enough to cause the neuron or neuronal pool to elicit an impulse, the neuron does move closer to having an impulse -when the nerves are more excited than they were prior to stimulation, they are undergoing facilitation iii. with facilitation the stimulated neuron will require less input to actually create an impulse

-convergence i. a single neuron may receive impulses from two or more presynaptic neurons -presynaptic neurons originate from different parts of the nervous system and converge on the same neuron are exhibiting convergence (fig. 9.16a) ii. convergence allows impulses to have additive effects on a postsynaptic neuron -the additive effects can be stimulatory or inhibitory

-divergence i. impulses leaving a neuron can exhibit divergence -this means a single neuron passes impulses to many postsynaptic neurons (fig. 9.16b) ii. divergence can amplify an impulse (spread it to multiple neurons at the same time)

Types of Nerves -sensory fibers (afferent fibers) bring information into the CNS i. motor fibers or efferent fibers carry impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands -most nerves are a combination of sensory and motor fibers i. called mixed nerves

Nerve Pathways -the route that nerve impulses follow as they move around through the nervous system are called nerve pathways i. the simplest of these pathways use only a few neurons -called a reflex arc -responsible for involuntary actions called reflexes

-reflex arc i. the reflex arc begins with a receptor at the end of a sensory (afferent) neuron ii. the sensory neuron passes the information to interneurons -located entirely within the CNS i. process information ii. act as the reflex center iii. interneurons pass information from the CNS to muscles or glands (fig. 9.18)

-reflex behavior i. reflexes are automatic responses to change within or outside of the body ii. patellar reflex (knee-jerk reflex) (fig. 9.19) -this is a simple reflex that involves only two neurons i. a sensory neuron communicates with a motor unit

-hitting the patellar ligament initiates this reflex i. a group of muscles called the quadriceps femoris is pulled slightly ii. this activates stretch receptors in the muscles iii. the receptors cause a nerve impulse in a sensory neuron in the spinal cord iv. in the spinal cord, the sensory neuron synapses with a motor neuron v. the motor neuron travels back to the quadriceps femoris vi. the muscles contract and the leg extends

iii. withdrawal reflex (fig. 9.20) -this reflex occurs when a person touches something painful -the touch activates skin receptors that send sensory impulses to the spinal cord -in the spinal cord, the impulse is passed to an interneuron -the interneuron processes the information and sends an impulse out of the CNS via a motor neuron

-the motor neuron transmits the impulse to a muscle in the injured area i. this causes the muscle to contract -the injured body part withdrawals from the painful stimulus -the interneurons also send information to the brain i. this causes the person to perceive pain