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Objective
Diodes
Non-linear circuit element. The analysis of circuits involves approximations. It is not possible to fabricate non-linear circuits using only linear elements. In-depth study of electronics requires more emphasis on physical principles. Electric properties of semiconductor.
Classification of matter
On the basis of electrical properties of matter : Metals electric conductor. Insulators electric insulator. Semiconductor exhibits property of conductor & insulator.
Definitions
Current :- Rate of flow of charge is called current (i, A). Current density :- The current flowing through a material of unit cross section area (J, A/m2). Resistance :- The property of a material which opposes the flow of current through it (R, ).
Let
L be length of conductor (m). A be cross-sectional area of metal (m2). N be no. of electrons in a section of metal conductor. Q be electron charge (C).
Obtaining expressions
Current, Current density, Resistance, i = (N.q.u) / L J = . R = (.L) /A
Consider a case
Let A copper wire with a cross- sectional area of1 (mm2 or 10-6 m2) carry a current of 0.4 A. The conductivity of copper at 20C (293 K) is 05.78x107 /m. The free-electron concentration is 8.43 x 1028 m-3. Find i) Electric field strength E ii) Resistance of the Cu. wire
Solution
Drift speed of the free electron is u = J / (n.q) = i / (n.q.A) = 2.97 x 10-5 (m/s) Mobility of free electrons is = / n.q = 4.29 x 10-3 (m2/V-s) Electric field strength is E = u / = 6.92 x 10-3 (V/m) Resistance of Cu wire is R = L / .A = 17.3 (m)
The classification
Free electron concentration (n) at 300K 1. 2. 3. 4. 1028 /m3 1.5 x 1016 /m3 2.5 x 1019 /m3 107 /m3 Metals Silicon Germanium Insulator
Semiconductor
Silicon and Germanium. Atom has four valence electrons which form covalent bond with adjacent atoms in crystal. The crystal has low conductivity below room temperature.
The Hole-electron pairs are created. Recombination occurs. In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, free-electron concentration, n = Hole concentration, p
Recombination
Due to thermal energy, new Hole-electron pairs are continually being generated. Recombination is a continuous process.
2. J = (n.n + p.p).q. J=. 3. Conductivity decreases 3. Conductivity increases with increase in temperature. with increase in temperature.
Doping of semiconductors
Allows increasing conductivity of semiconductor crystal. When an impurity is added to a semiconductor crystal, it is said to be doped semiconductor. Impurity is small amount of element, called dopant, atoms of pentavalent or trivalent elements. Doping is accomplished using sophisticated technology.
Mass-Action law
According to mass-action law, regardless of the amount of doping of a semiconductor, under thermal equilibrium n.p = ni2 where n is the free-electron concentration. p is the hole concentration. ni is the intrinsic concentration.
Therefore
Doped semiconductor must be electrically neutral, under thermal equilibrium. For n-type semiconductor, n > > p.
n ND
and
p ni2 / ND
Similarly
For p-type semiconductor, p > > n. p NA and n ni2 / NA
Graded Semiconductors
Doping results in concentration gradient. The current density J for a semiconductor is J = (n.n + p.p).q. = . This states that it is possible to obtain current in a semiconductor as a result of the influence of an electric field. Also transport of electric charge can be facilitated by creating non-uniform concentration of electric charge (concentration gradient). The semiconductor is said to be graded.
Diffusion constant
The concentration gradient results in diffusion of charges (a result of statistical phenomenon). The concentration of holes, p, is a function of distance x. The hole current density is proportional to the concentration gradient. Jp = -q.Dp.dp /dx where Dp is the diffusion constant for holes (unit is m2/s).
Einstein equation
The electron current density is Jn = q.Dn.dn /dx where Dn is the diffusion constant for electrons (unit is m2/s) Diffusion and mobility are related to each other by Einstein Equation Dn / n = Dp / p = (K.T) / q where K = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann constant).
T is temperature in K.
q = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
contd
Summary
The barrier potential, v0 depends on
1. doping level
2. temperature 3. acceptor concentration
4. donor concentration
5. type of semiconductor