Chapter 1

Picturing Distributions with Graphs

BPS - 5th Ed.

Chapter 1

Statistics
Statistics is a science that involves the extraction of information from numerical data obtained during an experiment or from a sample. It involves the design of the experiment or sampling procedure, the collection and analysis of the data, and making inferences (statements) about the population based upon information in a sample.

BPS - 5th Ed.

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Individuals and Variables

Individuals

the objects described by a set of data may be people, animals, or things

Variable

any characteristic of an individual can take different values for different individuals

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Variables
Categorical

Places an individual into one of several groups or categories

Quantitative

(Numerical)

Takes numerical values for which arithmetic operations such as adding and averaging make sense

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Case Study
The Effect of Hypnosis on the Immune System
reported in Science News, Sept. 4, 1993, p. 153

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Case Study
The Effect of Hypnosis on the Immune System Objective: To determine if hypnosis strengthens the disease-fighting capacity of immune cells.

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Case Study
65

college students.

33 easily hypnotized 32 not easily hypnotized

white

blood cell counts measured all students viewed a brief video about the immune system.

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Case Study
Students

randomly assigned to one of three conditions

subjects hypnotized, given mental exercise subjects relaxed in sensory deprivation tank control group (no treatment)

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Case Study
white

blood cell counts re-measured after one

week the two white blood cell counts are compared for each group results
hypnotized group showed larger jump in white blood cells easily hypnotized group showed largest immune enhancement
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Case Study
Variables measured
categorical
Easy

quantitative

or difficult to achieve hypnotic trance Group assignment Pre-study white blood cell count Post-study white blood cell count
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BPS - 5th Ed.

Case Study
Weight Gain Spells Heart Risk for Women
Weight, weight change, and coronary heart disease in women. W.C. Willett, et. al., vol. 273(6), Journal of the American Medical Association, Feb. 8, 1995. (Reported in Science News, Feb. 4, 1995, p. 108)

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Case Study
Weight Gain Spells Heart Risk for Women Objective: To recommend a range of body mass index (a function of weight and height) in terms of coronary heart disease (CHD) risk in women.
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BPS - 5th Ed.

Case Study
Study

started in 1976 with 115,818 women aged 30 to 55 years and without a history of previous CHD. Each womans weight (body mass) was determined. Each woman was asked her weight at age 18.
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BPS - 5th Ed.

Case Study
The

cohort of women were followed for 14 years. The number of CHD (fatal and nonfatal) cases were counted (1292 cases).

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Case Study
Variables measured
quantitative
Age

categorical

(in 1976) Weight in 1976 Weight at age 18 Incidence of coronary heart disease Smoker or nonsmoker Family history of heart disease
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BPS - 5th Ed.

Distribution
Tells

what values a variable takes and how often it takes these values
be a table, graph, or function

Can

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Displaying Distributions
Categorical

variables

Pie charts Bar graphs

Quantitative

variables

Histograms Stemplots (stem-and-leaf plots)

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Class Make-up on First Day

Data Table
Year
Freshman Sophomore

Count
18 10

Percent
41.9% 23.3%

Junior
Senior Total
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9 43
Chapter 1

14.0%
20.9% 100.1%
18

Class Make-up on First Day

Pie Chart
Senior 20.9%

Freshman 41.9% Junior 14.0%

Sophomore 23.3%

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Class Make-up on First Day

45.0% 40.0% 35.0% 30.0%
Percent

41.9%

Bar Graph

25.0% 20.0% 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% Freshman

23.3% 20.9% 14.0%

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Year in School

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Example: U.S. Solid Waste (2000)

Data Table
Material Weight (million tons) Percent of total

Food scraps
Glass Metals Paper, paperboard Plastics Rubber, leather, textiles Wood Yard trimmings Other Total

25.9
12.8 18.0 86.7 24.7 15.8 12.7 27.7 7.5 231.9

11.2 %
5.5 % 7.8 % 37.4 % 10.7 % 6.8 % 5.5 % 11.9 % 3.2 % 100.0 %

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Example: U.S. Solid Waste (2000)

Pie Chart

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Example: U.S. Solid Waste (2000)

Bar Graph

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Examining the Distribution of Quantitative Data

Overall

pattern of graph Deviations from overall pattern Shape of the data Center of the data Spread of the data (Variation) Outliers
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Shape of the Data

Symmetric

bell shaped other symmetric shapes

Asymmetric

right skewed left skewed

Unimodal,

bimodal

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Symmetric Bell-Shaped

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Symmetric Mound-Shaped

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Symmetric Uniform

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Asymmetric Skewed to the Left

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Asymmetric Skewed to the Right

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Outliers
Extreme

values that fall outside the overall pattern

May occur naturally May occur due to error in recording May occur due to error in measuring Observational unit may be fundamentally different

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Histograms
For

quantitative variables that take many values Divide the possible values into class intervals (we will only consider equal widths) Count how many observations fall in each interval (may change to percents) Draw picture representing distribution
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Histograms: Class Intervals

How

many intervals?

One rule is to calculate the square root of the sample size, and round up.
Size

of intervals?

Divide range of data (maxmin) by number of intervals desired, and round to convenient number
Pick

intervals so each observation can only fall in exactly one interval (no overlap)
Chapter 1 33

BPS - 5th Ed.

Case Study
Weight Data
Introductory Statistics class Spring, 1997 Virginia Commonwealth University

BPS - 5th Ed.

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Weight Data
192 152 135 110 128 180 260 170 165 150 110 120 185 165 212 119 165 210 186 100 195 170 120 185 175 203 185 123 139 106 180 130 155 220 140 157 150 172 175 133 170 130 101 180 187 148 106 180 127 124 215 125 194

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Weight Data: Frequency Table

Weight Group 100 - <120 120 - <140 140 - <160 160 - <180 180 - <200 200 - <220 220 - <240 240 - <260 260 - <280 Count 7 12 7 8 12 4 1 0 1

sqrt(53) = 7.2, or 8 intervals; range (260100=160) / 8 = 20 = class width

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Weight Data: Histogram

14 12

Number of students

10 8 6 4 2 0 100 Frequency

120

140

160

180 200 Weight

220 240

260

280

* Left endpoint is included in the group, right endpoint is not.

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Stemplots
(Stem-and-Leaf Plots)
For

quantitative variables Separate each observation into a stem (first part of the number) and a leaf (the remaining part of the number) Write the stems in a vertical column; draw a vertical line to the right of the stems Write each leaf in the row to the right of its stem; order leaves if desired

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1 2

Weight Data
110 120 185 165 212 119 165 210 186 100 195 170 120 185 175 203 185 123 139 106 180 130 155 220 140 157 150 172 175 133 170 130 101 180 187 148 106 180 127 124 215 125 194

192 152 135 110 128 180 260 170 165 150

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Weight Data: Stemplot

(Stem & Leaf Plot)
Key
20|3 means 203 pounds Stems = 10s Leaves = 1s

10 11 12 13 5 14 15 2 16 17 18 19 2 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

192 152 135

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Weight Data: Stemplot

(Stem & Leaf Plot)
Key
20|3 means 203 pounds Stems = 10s Leaves = 1s

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

0166 009 0034578 00359 08 00257 555 000255 000055567 245 3 025 0

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Extended Stem-and-Leaf Plots

If there are very few stems (when the
data cover only a very small range of values), then we may want to create more stems by splitting the original stems.

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Extended Stem-and-Leaf Plots

Example: if all of the data values were between 150 and 179, then we may choose to use the following stems:
15 15 16 16 17 17
BPS - 5th Ed.

Leaves 0-4 would go on each upper stem (first 15), and leaves 5-9 would go on each lower stem (second 15).

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Time Plots

A time plot shows behavior over time.

Time is always on the horizontal axis, and the variable being measured is on the vertical axis.
Look for an overall pattern (trend), and deviations from this trend. Connecting the data points by lines may emphasize this trend. Look for patterns that repeat at known regular intervals (seasonal variations).

BPS - 5th Ed.

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Class Make-up on First Day

(Fall Semesters: 1985-1993)
Class Make-up On First Day
70% 60%

Percent of Class That Are Freshman

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Year of Fall Semester

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Average Tuition (Public vs. Private)

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