Dao Thi Bich Nguyen

Definition
In the method of data collection called observation, the researcher observes participants in natural and/or structured environments. (Johnson and Christensen, 2004)

Observations
Observations have always been considered a major data collection tool in qualitative research. In second language acquisition research, observations are most often used to collect data on how learners use language in a variety of settings, to study language learning and teaching processes in the classroom, and to study teachers and students behaviours. The main use of observations is for examining a phenomenon or a behaviour while it is going on. (Seliger and Shohamy (1989, p. 162 )

Who and what is to be observed?

The focus of the observation can be ourselves as teachers: the techniques we use, our physical presence, use of gesture, management procedures. The focus can be on our students: the way they work, the way they interact, the way they respond to our teaching, their on-task and off-task behaviour The focus can be on the context in which we teach: the classroom layout, the teaching aids available and how they are used, the use of posters and visual aids in the classroom. (Wallace, 1998)

Who does the observing?

Observations can be made by insiders who are part of the group observed, by participant observers, or by outsiders (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989) Observations can be done by the teacher concerned, other colleagues, academic researchers, or students (Wallace, 1998).

Who does the observing?

The qualitative observer may take on four different roles that make up a continuum:
Complete participant (i.e., becoming a full member of the group and not informing the participants that you are studying them). Participant-as-Observer (i.e., spending extensive time "inside" and informing the participants that you are studying them). Observer-as-Participant (i.e., spending a limited amount of time "inside" and informing them that you are studying them). Complete Observer (i.e., observing from the "outside" and not informing that participants that you are studying them).

(Johnson and Christensen, 2004)

Strengths of observation data

Allows one to directly see what people do without having to rely on what they say they do. Provides firsthand experience, especially if the observer participates in activities. Can provide relatively objective measurement of behavior (especially for standardized observations). Observer can determine what does not occur. Observer may see things that escape the awareness of people in the setting. Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting. Helps in understanding importance of contextual factors. Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills. May provide information on things people would otherwise be unwilling to talk about. Observer may move beyond selective perceptions of people in the setting. Good for description. Provides moderate degree of realism (when done outside of the laboratory). (Johnson and Christensen, 2004)

Weaknesses of observation data

Reasons for observed behavior may be unclear. Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are being observed (e.g., people being observed may behave in a typical way). Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective perception of observers) Observer may go native (i.e., over-identifying with the group being studied). Sampling of observed people and settings may be limited. Cannot observe large populations. Some settings and content of interest cannot be observed. Collection of unimportant material may be moderately high. More expensive to conduct than questionnaires and tests. Data analysis can be time consuming. (Johnson and Christensen, 2004)

Types
Structured observations
Researcher has determined in advance what to look for in the observed context (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989). Observers are guided by some kind of observation schedule (Wallace 1998).

Unstructured or open observations

The data recorded are broad and more general.

Data
Data obtained from more structured observations will be in the form of checks, tallies, frequencies, and rating (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989). Data obtained from open observations will be in the form of impressions, field notes, tapes or transcripts (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989).

Methods of recording
Impressions: often have no record, and this may create a problem if it is necessary to return to the data. Field notes: provide records, but depend on the opportunity and ability of the observer to record accurately what is observed. In addition, the presence of the observer may alter the subjects behaviour. Audio tapes: are limited to capturing the vocal aspect of verbal interaction. Video tapes: provide more elaborate data, although they are dependent on the capability of the camera and what is focuses on. Specific items of data may not be very accessible Transcription:

Methods of recording
A regular time base/ time-interval observing (every 3 seconds, 30 seconds, 60 seconds) Event observing (observing after an event has taken place; e.g. observing after teacher asks a question) Tally: Checklist: observer check whether a specific behavior is present or absent. Numerical scales and rating scales: helps the observer to rate and quantify the observed behaviors or phenomena.

Example: interaction analysis- a regular time base

Observed behavior: the frequency/ distribution of participation in a group-work activity
Student A B

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

30 second sweep

Example: interaction analysis -a regular time base

Recoding nature of participation 1: initiation Student B 2: response simple agreement 3: response agreement and 2 development 4: response simple disagreement 5: response disagreement and development 6: structuring move (eg. why dont we discuss)

Student A 1,1,6

3 Student C 5,4

Student D Student A: a dominant role in the discussion

Example: Checklist
Observed behaviour: Students activities in the language classroom Task: Check whether or not the student performed the following: Asked for translation of unknown words: Yes __No ____ Used L1 in conversation with teacher: Yes ___ No ____ Used L2 in conversation with teacher: Yes ___ No ____ Used L2 in conversation with peers: Yes ___ No ____ Referred to textbook/dictionary for unknown words: Yes ___ No ____ Asked for grammaticall explanations: Yes ___ No ____

Example: Numerical scale

Observed behaviour: Students use of L2 in asking questions Task: How often does each student ask a question in L2? Always_____; Usually________; Sometimes:_______; Never_______

Example: Rating scale

Observed behaviour: students involvement in a specific classroom task Task: Please mark how involved students are: Very involved: 1 2 3 4 5 Not very involved

Example: Tallies/ Question tally sheet

Observed behaviour: the level of question that teacher uses

Level of question

Tallies IIII

Total 14

Literal (Simple retrieval IIII of information from the IIII text) Inferential (reading between the lines) IIII

Reorganisational II (combining information from different areas of the text) Evaluative (expressing I a judgment)

Example: Tallies
Observed behaviour: are some Name students favoured with the teachers attention more than Lan others?
Mai Tally Total

II

Hoa

IIII

Cong

Example: Tallies
Observed behaviour: are some students favoured with the teachers attention more than others?
T IIII IIII I IIIII I I II

System-based approach
The observers are guided by some kind of observation schedule which allows them to collect data in a systematic way ready made no need to be trialed or validated Eg: The FIAC system: Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories The TALOS system: The target Language Observation Scheme The COLT: The communicative Orientation of Language Teaching

Example: Classroom Observation Tally Sheet from Nunan (1989)

Tallies
Teacher asks a display questions Teacher asks a referential questions Teacher explains a grammatical point Teacher explains meaning of a vocabulary item Teacher explains functional point Teacher explains points relating to the content Teacher gives instructions/direction Teacher praises Teacher criticizes Learner answers questions Learner talks to another learner Learner asks questions
III

Total
3

II I

IIII

Example: FIAC System

Teacher talk
Accepting feelings or attitudes expressed by the students Praising or encouraging a student Accepting or using students ideas Asking questions Lecturing (explaining, informing) Giving directions or commands Criticizing students, justifying authority

Student talk
Pupil-talk response (answering a question) Pupil-talk initiation (volunteering information, asking a question of the teacher) Silence/confusion

Example: The TALOS Observation scheme

Teaching act:
Drill Narrate Explain Discuss Compare Answer Questions Correct Reinforce Routine discipline

Example: COLT Part A

Example COLT Part B

Example: Open observations

Observed behaviour: Students involvement in the language class Task: Describe the level of involvement of three students in the language class activities ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________

Example: Open observations

Observed behaviour: Teachers and students use of L1 in an L2 class Task: Describe the type and amount of language used by the teacher and by the students during a groupwork activity _______________________________________ _______________________________________ ______________________________________

Discussion 1
Group work Using the table below, you are invited to think of a topic that interests you within of the three main areas of focus (yourself as a teacher, your students, or your class context). Decide who would be responsible for the observation and which method of recording you would like to use.
Focus Topic Obsever/s Method

Self as teacher students

Context

Discussion 2
Group work Make a list of aspects of your own teaching behaviour or your students behaviour that it might be useful for you to observe. Pick one activity that you want to observe and decide how you are going to implement the observation. What do you hope to discover? If you can, make a trial attempt at implementing your plan. How interesting/ useful were the data you discovered? Is there any way in which the observation could have been improved? k60C.lollipop@gmail.com