Cairo University Fac.

of Agriculture

Agronomy Dept. International Agric.

PRINCIPLES OF FIELD CROP PRODUCTION

Prof. Dr : Nabil Ali Khalil

Lecture NO : (1)

Importance of field crops

cropWhat is :Crops are plants which
have been carefully selected and developed to produce food for man and feed for animals

What dos Agronomy mean :

; Agronomy was derived from two Greek words (Agros) field and (nomos) to manage.So Agronomy is the branch of Agriculture science that treats with principles and practices of crop production and field management which has been recognized only since 1900 It had its origins largely in the sciences of Botany , Chemistry,Physics and Soil.

What does the Agronomist do :

An Agronomist is the man who studies the problems of crop production and develops better ways of producing food , feed and fiber . The duty of the Agronomist also includes giving advices to farmers .

Crop husbandry :
Crop husbandry is the practice of growing , and harvesting crops , and understanding of how plants
grow , and what they need .

purposes of producing field crops : Direct : crops which we can use and benefit from immediately after harvest without major transformation such as cereals and seed legumes .

Indirect : Animal feeding on forage crops and transformed to dairy products and meat . Also, leather and wool for clothing .

Industrial :
Crops are planted to supply raw materilals for factories such as cotton for textile of its fine fibers and oil production by its seeds . Sugar cane and sugar beet are used for extracting pure sugar and other industrial products from their stems and roots . Also soybean , peanuts and sunflower seeds are rich sources for oil manufacturing , Maize grains for oil and starch production .

calories content / 1 kg for various Agriculture products

Field crops
wheat maize
broad bean chick pea

Fruits
1020

vegetables

Animal products
1410
1200

3300 Dates 3750 Mango

3160 Grape 3370 Orange

Sweet potato 107 Chicken

700 Potato

850 Red meat

600 Green pea 740 Eggs 460 Spinach 240 Cheese

1560 1840 850

lentils peanuts

3320 Watermelon 270 Cucumber 120 Milk 5540 Melon 310

characteristics of field crops : 1-They

are planted on relatively large acreage (Berseem> 2.5 million feddan , corn > 2 million feddan ) . 2-The ability to store for long time comparing with orchard and vegetable crops . 3-Planted on the field not in green houses . 4-Not consumed directly from the field ( except for animals ) . 5-Low cost of production for unit area . 6-Generally herbaceous crops .

The origin of crops

Origin of crops means : the first place that crop was found in at the first time . The importance of studying the origin of crops

---------------------------------------------To know the environmental conditions for these . crops To study the wild species of crops and the genetic . component of these crops Transfer the desirable traits from the wild species to .the improved ones

 Centers of crop origin

-------------------------Vavilov ( soviet botanist ) listed the centers of origin of some more important plants as follows : -

China central and western :

soy beans , barley , sugar cane , More than 136 species originated in this center . India :

Rice , and cowpeas the total of species in this area is 117 . Central of Asia :
Common wheat , cotton , sesame , hemp, peas and lentil, the total of species in this area is 42 .

Near east :

Including Asia minor and Iran Some wheat , two- row barley and alfalfa the total of the species in this area is 83 . Mediterranean area : Durum and spelt wheat , some oats , barley , flax . The total species in this area is 84 .

Ethiopia :
Common six row barley , durum wheat , sorghum grains , castor beans, chick peas , lentils and coffee . The total species in this area is 38 . South Mexico and centeral America :

Corn , upland cotton , beans and sweet potato . The total species in this area is 49 .

South America :
White potato , tobaco , peanuts , lupines , tomato ,. The total species in this area is 45 .

 WORLD CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS

The leading crop growing regions in the word are :-

United states and Canada :

,Wheat , Corn , Oats, tobacco , barley , potatoes toncot ugar,s beet .flax soybean and

Argentina and Brazil:

wheat , corn , flax , potatoescane, sugar Alfalfa , and topacco .legumes , cotton

Middle and western Europe:

Flax , oats , sugar beet , wheat , barley ,Corn legumes and

South Africa :
Corn , wheat , cotton , oats , sorghum , sugar cane , barley and alfalfa .

North Africa :
Broad bean , barley , wheat , corn , sugar cane , tobacco and sorghum .

India :
Rice , sorghum , wheat , legumes , corn , barley ,
jute , sugar cane , flax and sesame .

Russia :
Oats , rye , potatoes , flax , and lupin .

China :
Rice , broad bean , potatoes , tobacco , soybeans

Australia :
Wheat , barley , oats , corn and flax .

Crop production in the Arab world **********************

The arable land is about 150 million ha. only 52 million ha is cultivated ( 35 Rain fed and 17 irrigated ) of our local demands are met though 50 % importation . About 900 million dollars increase in our budget for food importation is expected annually after GAT application .

Major crops in the Arab world ******************

Devoted area %62 %6 %5 %4 %4 %10 %4 Groups cereal oil seed legumes fibers forages fruits vegetables

Ways to increase food supply ----------------------------Vertical increase . Horizontal increase ( increasing cultivated area by reclaiming new lands in the desert ) .

How we can increase food supply by vertical way ? *********************

1. Introducing of new cultivars. 2. Birth control . 3. Application of advanced methods for irrigation and drainage. 4.Use of effective and less toxic pesticides and herbicides. 5.Proper application of fertilizers and manures. 6.Reduce the wastage by changing the bad habits in food consumption

Study questions :
1.Define crop ,Agronomy , Agronomist and crop husbandry ? 2.What are the purposes of producing field crops ? 3.List the characteristics of field crops ?

4.Why studying the origin of field crops is important ?

5.List three centers of crop origins and the important field crop which originated in it ? 6.List the world production regions of wheat , cotton , maize , soybean , sorghum , broad bean and flax ? 7.Discuss the ways to increase food supply ?

Lecture NO : (2)

Classification of field crops

Crops are classified according to different points : 1.Botanical classification . 2.Economical use classification ( Agronomic classification ) 3.Life duration classification .

4.classification according to growth . 5.special purpose classification . 6.Biochemical classification

Botanical classification

It is based up on similarity of plant parts Field crops :-

division

Spermatosperms Angiosperms

reproduction by seeds
ovules enclosed

sub division

in ovary wall Class Dicotyledons Genera

seeds have two cotyledon

Class Monocotyledons Order

seeds have one cotyledon

Family Sup - species

Varieties

Species
poaceae fabaceae

Grass family is called Legumes family is called

Other families ************** ******************** Malvaceae ( Cotton ) Fiber crops

Linaceae

Flax

)
Sugar crops

Chenopodiaceae (Sugar beet )

Poaceae ( Sugar can)

Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Compositae

( Wheat ) ( Rice ) ( Corn ) (Faba bean) ( sun flower )

Cereal crops Legume crops Oil crops

Pedeliaceae
Fabaceae

( Sesame )
(Egyption clover) Forage crops

Binomial system of nomenclature : **********************************

In the botanical classification each plant species is given a binomial name . It was formed by the botanist ( Carl Linneaus ) in 1753 . According to this system each plant has two names , The genus and species . let us go to name corn or maize.

Zea
Genus (Capital letter )

mays
species ( Small L. )

L.
Lenneaus

G.R . : we write the scientific name in latin language . because it is not readable or spoken lang. so it can not be changed .

Under this kind of classification , field crops are classified according to use rather than to similarity of parts . On this principle the following classification is often found :

Cereal or grain crops :

Grain means the fruit of cereals . Cereal may be defined as any grass grown for its edible grain . It refers to the plant as a whole or to the grain itself . EX : wheat , rice , maize , barley and sorghum .

Seed Legumes :
Legume refers to the pod of the leguminous plant , which consists of one carpel EX: field beans , lupine, lentils , chick peas and fenugreek .

Forage crops :
Forage means vegetable matter , fresh or dry utilized to feed animals . EX: Berseem clover , alfalfa and millets .

Fiber crops :
They are grown for their fiber from seeds like cotton or from stem like flax . This group are used in making textiles , ropes and twine .

Oil crops :
They are grown to extract oil from its seeds like soybeans , peanuts , flax , sesame, sunflower , safflower , castor bean , cotton and corn .

Oil crops :
They are grown to extract oil from its seeds like soybeans , peanuts , flax , sesame, sunflower , safflower , castor bean , cotton and corn .

Sugar crops :
They are grown to extract sugar from its stems like sugar cane or from its roots like sugar beet .

Stimulants crops :
EX: Coffee , tobacco and tea .

Pigment crops :
Safflower and Henna .

1.Green manuring crops :

Those crops which are grown to be plowed or disked into the soil to increase its fertility . Legumes are more desirable than cereals and they add nitrogen to the soil . EX: Lupin , soybean and clover .

2.Cover crops :
These crops are seeded to cover or protect the soil from erosion . The crop then serve as a cover crop and as a green - manuring crop . EX: Clover, lupin and vetches .

3.Catch or Emergency crop :

Cotton is planted in Feb . and remains 10 months so we can not grow a crop in two months . for that reason we plant Berseem before cotton to take one cut only .

4.Silage crops :
We can preserve some crops in a certain conditions by partial fermentation in a tight receptacle . EX: Corn, and clover.

Life duration classification

Field crops are grouped on the basis of length and life duration on the field to :

a) Annual :
Completes its growth and mature in one year or season such as ( wheat , corn , barley etc.. ) .

b) Biennials :
These crops persist for two seasons such as sugar beet , it builds reserves in the first year but do not give flowers or seeds until the second year .

c) Perennials :
They are plants that persist for more than two years such as alfalfa and sugar cane crops .

Biochemical classification

We can classify field crops according to the pathway of CO2 in photosynthesis process and the end product in plant after photosynthesis :according to the following table

Character
Number of carbon atoms in the first product Rate of photosynthesis Sensitivity to increase in O2 Optimum temperature of photosynthesis Crops

C3 crops
3

C4 crops
4

low sensitive 15 25 Co wheat , Barley , clover

high not sensitive 30 47 Co corn, sorghum , sugarcane

Growing season classification

This kind of classification is a local one because it differs from place to

Winter crops :
It starts germination on the fall , live through the winter , produces seeds 7to 5 on the following spring it takes months from planting to harvesting. Winter crops in Egypt are Berseem clover, lupine , lentils , broad beans , wheat, barley , flax and chick peas .

Summer crops : They are sown in spring or early summer , developed during summer and part of fall , produce seeds and mature in the fall.

Planting date of summer crops

Mid April June Late July - August

Early Feb March

long maturing crops as cotton

short maturing crops as corn , rice and sorghum

Study questions Discuss the rules of botanical classification ? Give example for binomial system of nomenclature ? Mention the groups of Agronomic classification ? Classify field crops according to special purposes ?

What is the differences between Biennials and perennials crops ? Differentiate between C3 and c4 ?plants discuss how the field crops can be classified according to growing season ?

Factors affecting the production of field crops ******** Some definitions :

Altitude :
height above the sea level

Climate

Weather conditions of a region averaged over a temperature, humidity, period of years, as precipitation, sunshine , clouds and winds

Weather :
The state of atmosphere with regard to as air movements , clouds , such variables moisture and pressure at any time )short period day hours(

Biotic

The kinds , numbers and distribution of plants and animals.

Eco system :
(Ecological system ) the community plus the environment with which interacts

Ecology

Study the structure and function of ecosystems

Latitude

Distance From the equator

Factor affecting the production of field crops

Genetic

Environmental

Climatic

Edaphic (soil) Abiotic

Biotic

:Genetic factors Increased yield and other desirable characters are related to genetic make up of the plant . These characters inherent in each plant and are transmitted from one generation to another by genes . Yield potentiality differed from one .variety to another

Climate
Why we study the climate in a ?particular region
To determine the suitability of a crop for a given area . Distribution of a crop in a particular region . The type of wild plants grown naturally in any part of the world.

The atmospheric factors which affect the crop plant are called climatic factors :
Temperature . Precipitation . Humidity . Solar radiation . ( light) Winds .

Temperature
Temperature of any location mainly determined by its distance from the equator ( latitude ) and the height above the see level (Altitude ) . So we can classify the vegetation to tropical , sub .tropical and temperate crops

Temperature limits on plant growth:Physiological range: the range of temperature

in which plant growth occurs

( death ) lower Leathal temp (forst)

( death ) Upper Lethal temp

Minimum Optimum Maximum )slow growth( )growth slow(

lower threshold Growth upper threshold

temp ( No growth )

temp ( No growth )

The rate of net photosynthesis increases until it reaches the temperature at which the rate of respiration is increasing faster than the rate of photosynthesis
1 0.8 rate of leaf 0.6 appearance 0.4

(growth)

0.2 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 temperature

Influence of temp. on rate of corn growth )leaf appearance(

The most physiological processes ocurs between. 0 45 C 20 30 C Most of agricultural plants )Optimum tem.( > 35 C Some tropical and subtropical Optimum temperature and tolerance : High and low temperatures can vary with the age and size of the plant . When the temperatures are below the optimum, chemical reactions slow so that the maximum utilization can not be made of the available photosynthate. Above optimum temperatures , substrates that could go in to yield are increasingly lost through excessive respiration . At temperatures higher than 45 C o , most physiological processes decline due to destruction of the enzyme systems .

:-Cold injury -------------------Plant are injured due to cold temperature :-in the following ways Chilling injury plants growing in hot climate , if exposed to low temperature )( which is above the freezing point for some time , are found to be killed or injured for example if sugarcane plants exposed for at hours60 2 4 C caused chloratic condition and bonds on the leaves

:-Freezing injury
When plants which are grown in the temperate region exposed to very low temperature freezing .injury occur low temperature caused water freezing changing it to ice crystals in the intercellular spaces with further decrease in temp . , water is withdrawn from the cells , resulting in increase in the size of ice crystals in the intercellular spaces

:-Heaving Injury to plants is caused by a lifting upward the plant along with the soil from the normal position in temperate regions where snow . fall is a common phenomenon :-Suffocation Ice or snow during winter form a thick cover over the ground and the crop suffers from the lack of oxygen . Ice in contact with roots inhibits the diffusion of carbon dioxide and the respiratory products may become harmful to plants

Heat injury :
The effect of high temp. are noticeable in young seedlings and transplanted crops The very high temperature often stops growth and the plant faces starvation due to high respiration rates . 1. The plant is stunted and if such condition persists for along time the plant is killed . 2. Sterility in flowers . 3.Defoliation , premature dropping of fruits in extreme cases plant death may be oucurd .

Temperature averages in Egypt

Egypt has a warm rainy winter and a hot dry summer it is divided into four climatic regions with minor differences as follows :
1. Mediterranean sea cost : with an average annual temperature of 19.8 0c. 2. South Delta : with an average annual temp. 20.10c . 3. Middle Egypt : with an average annual temp. 21.60c . 4. Upper Egypt : with an average annual temp. 25.20c .

High temp. accelerates growth processes . However , beyond a certain limit , which depends on the crop . The stage of development and the physiological process involved, high temp. may have detrimental effects on crop production.

Precipitation Function of water :1. Essential constituent of plant tissue 90% . 2. Regulates temp. on plant body. 3. Nutrient carrier and solvent . 4. Turgidity of plant and keep them erect .

The groups of plants :1. Hydrophytes : Require large amount of H2O. ex: low land rice. 2. Mesophytes : Average amount of H2O required. ex : Most of field crops. 3. Xerophytes : Very resistant to drought conditions. ex : Dwarf green sorghum.

Rainfall
we can classify crop regions according to annual rainfall to :Arid : Rainfall less than 10 inches of annual precipitation . Semi arid : 10- 19 inc. Sub humid : 20 39 inc. Humid : 40 59 inc.

Wet

: > 60 inches .

While the total annual precipitation is important its distribution plays an essential role in crop production.

Rainfall in Egypt
Town Alex Tanta Cairo Assiut Aswan annual rainfall 180 mm 49 mm 36 mm 7 mm 0 mm

Critical period in plant life : It is period of greatest need for moisture * plants grown for seeds : when fertilization of flowers taking place . * Forage crops : Early stages of growth .

* Cotton plants

: flowering and bulling stages

Study questions
1. What are the factors affecting the production of field crops ? 2. What is the differences between climate and weather ? 3. Discuss how the temperature affect the crop production ? 4. Define:heaving effect,suffocation,chilling and 5. freezing effect ? What are the critical period in plant life ?

Light
Normal physiological function of the plant needs light and thermal condition for the best growth . It is very essential for the syntheses of green chlorophyll Chlorophyll is capable of absorbing radiant energy and converting it into potential chemical energy of carbohydrates .

How the light affect crop production :

Light affects crop production in four ways : intensity , duration ( photoperiod ) , direction and quality of light according to the wave length . It is very difficult to evaluate the effects of light alone because the intensity of light depends on the temperature , relative humidity and clouds. so the dry matter accumulation is limited and crop such cotton needs more than 180 of sunny days to give good yield . Only one percent of light energy is converted into potential chemical energy . At low light intensity the rate of photosynthesis reduced and may be resulted in stomata close.

High light intensities cause rapid loss water which may be resulting in the closure of stomata . Also very high light intensity increases the rate of respiration which disturbs the photosynthesis respiration balance, weak light results on week stems and reduce number of branches and root growth , the plant become pale yellowish in color . Also light quality has a great effect on crop production only the principal wavelengths absorbed in photosynthesis are in violet- blue and orange- red regions . Red light seems to be the most favorable light for growth followed by violet- blue .

Photoperiodism
It is the response of plants to the relative length of day and night .

1.Short day crops :

Like soybean , corn and sorghum . Those plants develop normally when the photoperiod is less than 12 hours of illumination . If those crops is subjected to long day period the growth of the plants become up normal .

2.Long day crops :

Like winter crops wheat, barely , Egyptian clover, sugarbeet and flax plants of long day developed normally when subjected to more than 12 hours of illumination . If those crops subjected to short day period the growth was affected giving short internodes and stop flowering .

3.Neutral field crops :

Like cotton and sunflower . Those plants flower at any day length in certain limits so we can say that those plants are unaffected by photoperiod . Sugar can ( perennial crop ) is the ideal crop for short day crops. Since it does not give flowers in Egypt because it needs lees than 12 hours of illumination . That the reason of why Egypt is ranked the first in yield productivity of sugarcan since the faddan give about 8 tones of sugar .

Winds
Wind has a great effect on crop production especially on flowering time the velocity of wind at a certain place depends on Altitude ( height above sea level ), topography and the distance from seashore .

How crop production affected by wind :

Exposition of crop roots by strong winds. The sand and dust particles carried by the wind may damage plant tissues. Young plants may be completely covered by sand . Strong winds may be cause lodging or breaking of crop stalks or shedding of seeds .

Wind increases transpiration as well as evaporation from the soil., Moreover, hot dry wind may adversely affect photosynthesis and hence productivity . Sometimes hot winds has a beneficial effect as the effect of hot and dry wind on the yellow rust of wheat which can be spreaded in such conditions , Also we can not forget the important role of winds in pollination .

Edaphic factors

Edaphic factors means the factors which affect the crop growth through the soil like soil moisture , soil temperature , soil air , soil mineral and organic matter and soil organisms .
* Plant tissues contain about 90% of water .Water gives turgidity to plants and regulates the temperature in plants body and it promotes physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil

* Absorbing of water by root takes place at a rapid rate in well aerated soils . Oxygen is needed for the respiration of roots . Also air is essential for water absorption . * Concerning soil temperature it is very important for the metabolic activities of the plants . the maximum absorption of water by roots takes place between 20-30 C0 . Soil temp. is also important for nitrification which does ,t begin until the soil reaches a temp. of about 5 degrees .

Soil minerals and organic matter : soil composite of 30% mineral, 30% water, 30%air and from 5 10 % organic matter . The inorganic matter ( elements ) in the soil depend on the nature of rocks also organic matter in the soil is a source of mineral nutrients essential for the crop growth organic matter in the soil came from the decaying roots of plants and living organisms and dead plants and animals . The principle kinds of living organisms found in the soil are plants (like Bacteria , Fungi , and Algae) and animals like (nematodes and insects) micro organism like bacteria and fungi have an essential role in converting the organic matter into simpler products before it can be utilized . Also large organisms like earth worms . etc . improve the aeration of the soil due to their burrowing habit .

Biotic factors

Definition :Beneficial or harmful effects are caused by other plants or animals on the crop plants .

Plants:
Competition among plants occur when there is demand for nutrient , moisture and sunlight. Closer spacing reduces the yield of individual plants, while, wider spacing will reduce the total yield . Hence optimum spacing of crops is an important agronomical practice . So weeds ( plants that grow where they are not wanted ) reduce the yield quality and quantity by their competition with crops for water , soil nutrients and light , more over some of them are poisonous to man and animal .

Animals :
Some animals like nematods, snails and insects causing a loss in production at about 20% . Some of them are benefit like beens for pollination . Some small animals like rabbits and field rates consume green grass .At the some time some large animals like cattle, goats, sheep and horses cause damage to crop by grazing.

Study questions
1. Discuss how does wind affect crop production ? 2. Classify field crops according to photoperiodism ? 3. What is the importance of Co2 for plant growth ? 4. What is the role of micro- organisms in increasing crop yields? 5. What does biotic factors mean. and how plants can play an important role on yield potentiality ?

Soil and soil fertility

Soil :
Is the media for growing plants . It is a mixture of mineral and organic matter that is capable of supporting plant life .

Soil profile
It is a vertical section of the soil to expose the layering is called a profile . The upper layer is usually higher in organic matter and darker in color than the layers below .

horizon
o

o o

Dark grayish - brown surface soil Brown moderately

0

horizon

permeable subsoil C horizon leached slowly permeable

Air Water Organic matter Mineral matter

Soil components

Plant nutrients :
Macronutrients
Mostly from mineral solids Mostly from organic matter

Calcium ( Ca ) Phosphours (P ) Nitrogen ( N ) Magnesium ( Mg ) Sulfur (S ) Potassium ( K )

Micro nutrients Boron (B) Chlorine (Cl) Copper (Cu) Iron ( Fe ) Manganese (Mn) Molybdenum (Mo) Zinc (Zn ) Plants absorb elements from the soil in ionic forms for example, calcium, magnesium and potassium are absorbed as Ca ++ , Mg ++ and K + ions , Nitrogen is absorbed as NH4+ or No3 phosphorus is absorbed as H2Po 4- or HPo4- - and sulfur is absorbed as So4-- . Plant roots either absorb an equal number of positive and negative charges or make a simple exchange of one ion for another .

Soil texture :
Size of soil particles and their relative proportions . Soil texture refers to the percentage by weight of each of the three mineral fractions , sand , silt and clay .

Soil structure :
Two soils with the same texture may have distinctly different physical prosperities because the soil particles are arranged in different way . 60 % sand , 25 % silt and 15 % clay = sandy loam 25 % sand , 45 % silt and 30 % clay = clay loam 28 % sand , 54 % silt and 18 % clay = silt loam

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Sandy

Sandy loam

Loam and Silt loam

Clay loam

Clay

The water-holding capacities of typical soils of various textures

Egyptian soils may be agriculturally classifieds in relation to its textures :1. Sandy soil : ( light textured soils ) < 20% silt ,clay Not retain H2O Easy to work Good aerated with high soil temp, Poor in Organic Matter and nutrients Suitable crops : Barley, Lupine, sesame, clover, peanuts . 2. Loamy soil ( Medium textured soil ) > 20 50 % silt and clay Suitable crops : wheat, clover, brood bean and corn .

3. Clay and clay loam (Heavy or fine textured soils) >50% silt and clay Not ready drainable high water holding capacity Not easily worked More plant nutrients than light soils less aeration Suitable crops : cotton, sugarcane and maize

Soil Reaction :
PH : is the concentration of H + in soil
classification of soils accrding to PH
Neutral Acidic PH< 5.5 Acidic components

PH (7) best for growth of most of crops

Alkaline PH > 8.5 basic salts

Effect of soil acidity

1. High acidity is toxic to plants . 2. Low activity of N fixing bacteria . 3. Reduce the composition of O. M by microorganisms . 4. High acidity interferes with absorption of several nutrients (K, Ca, Mg ) P also fixed in acidic soils

Alkaline soils
Chemical problems result from the reduced availability of P, K and most of the micronutrients . Iron deficiencies are common problem in alkaline soils.

Saline-sodic soils
Soils combine the high salt content ( greater than 4 millimhos / cm in the saturation extract ) of the saline soils with the high percent Na+ ( more than 15 percent on the cation exchange sites ) of the sodic soils . Usually they have PH values between 8.0 and 8.5 .

High - lime soils

Nitrate release by decomposition of organic matter is likely to be more rapid in high-lime soils than in others because microbial activity is favored in the slightly alkaline PH range . It is possible to reduce nitrogen fertilization on high lime soils that have high organic-matter contents .Sometimes the No3- level is high enough that it , combined with moist condition and low K+ , results in lodging of small grain crops. Legume forage crops such as sweet clover usually do well on high-lime soils . They are favored by the high Ca++ supply . The conditions may be too well , however, for
alfalfa.

Saline soils reclamation

The treatment of either saline or sodic soils to make them more productive is known as reclamation . Saline soils that are not sodic can be reclaimed very quickly if they can be drained and if adequate water is available for leaching. The salt content of some irrigation water is so high that it tends to create saline soils . When such water is used , the amount of applied must be considerably in excess of the amount used by evaporation and transpiration . The amount of excess water must be enough to dissolve the salts from all the applied water and carry them into the drainage system .

Saline-sodic soils reclamation

The most important difference between saline soils and saline-sodic soils is that a soil amendment must be applied to the latter before they are leached . Leaching without soil amendment will convert saline-sodic into sodic soils, a much more difficult to reclaim . The most commonly used amendments for alkaline soils are gypsum and sulfur . Gypsum ( CaSo4 .2H2o ) is usually favored , most of the Na+ ions present on the cat ion exchange should be replaced by Ca++ so that dispersion will not occur .

Na+
Na+ micelle + CaSo4 Ca++ micelle + 2Na+ + So4- -

The sodium sulfate formed is soluble and can be leached from the soil . Enough excess Ca++ should be present in solution to cause the previous reaction to replace nearly all of the Na+ on the micelles . Also enough gypsum should be provided to remove most of the carbonate ion from solution .

2Na+ + Co3-- + CaSo4

CaCo3

+ 2Na+ + So4

The reaction is important because Na2Co3 in solution produces a very high PH and all the undesirable characteristic that accompany it , whereas N2So4 is a nutral salt .

A grouping of crops According to salt tolerance

High salt tolerance Medium salt tole.
Barley Sugar beet Rice Sorghum

Low salt tole .

Clover Field beans

Rape Cotton

Corn Sunflower

Lentils Chich pea

Sulfer is likely to be used as soil amendment to reduce alkalinity when the soil contains free lime as well as too much sodium . The advantage of sulfer is the much higher weight of material that must be transported and applied microbial 2 S + 3O2 + H2O 2HSo4

action
of course , any sulfuric acid released in an alkaline soil will immediately react with some of the present salts .

Study questions
1. What is the differences between soil texture and soil structure ? 2. What is the characteristics of sandy soil, loamy soil and clay soils ? 3. How we can reclaim salin soils, Alkaline soils? 4. What is the differences between saline soils and saline-sodic soils ? 5. Classify field crops according to salt tolerance?

Definition of growth Growth is easier to describe than to define . In a restricted sense it is cell division ( increase in number ) and cell enlargement ( increase in size ) . Both processes require protein synthesis and are irreversible . Agronomists generally define growth as increase in dry matter .

Limitation of growth factors

The following fig. Shows limitation of growth factors

Some of the limiting factors in crop production

Growth analysis
Relative growth rate ( RGR ) :
Relative growth rate ( RGR ) : expresses the dry weight increase in a time interval in relation to the initial weight

RGR = (Ln W2 LnW1 ) / ( T2 - T1 )

W = weight T = time

Net Assimilation Rate ( NAR ) :

Is the net gain of assimilate mostly photosynthetic , per unit of area and time . ( W2 W1 ) ( Ln A2 Ln A1 ) NAR = ( A2 A1 ) ( T2 T1 )

Crop growth rate ( CGR ) :

Crop growth rate , the gain in weight of community of plants on a unit of land in a unit of time , is used extensively in growth analysis of field crops .

CGR = LAI X NAR Leaf area index ( LAI ) = LA/ GA = LA/ GA . NAR GA= ground area

Harvest Index ( HI ) :
Tow useful terms used to describe partitioning of dry matter by the plant are biological yield and economic yield . The term biological yield was the total dry matter accumulation of a plants system .
Economic yield Harvest Index ( HI ) = ______________ Biological yield

X 100

What are characteristics of a good cultivare :

1.high yield 2. Tolerant to diseases . 3. Tolerant to insects , frost , drought and salinity . 4. Have a good seed quality . 5. Have a short period season . 6. Have the a ability to utilize fertilization and irrigation .

How we can improve cultivars :

1- Introductions :- It is the easiest way of breeding but it is the most expensive way, example is importing C9 sugar can variety from India . 2- Selection :- Select plants has the necessary characteristics that we desire in a new cultivar . Selection must be done for number of generations to ensure that the desire characters were excited .

3- Hybridization :- This one of the important breeding methods by making a cross pollination between tow lines of crop has a good
traits .

pure line ( A ) X

pure line ( B ) ( parents )

( First generation ) F1 Single cross ( AB ) Hybrid Has a good characters due to the Hybrid vigor in F1 only . ______________________
AB X CD ( parents )

F1 ( First generation )
Double cross ( ABCD ) __________________ AB ( trible cross ) ABC F1 X C ( parents )

How we can produce corn hybrid seeds :

On the field ( large scale production ) we grow corn in one row as male (A) and 4 rows as female and before assailing we remove the tassels from then the silks of females must take pollen grains from male plants then hybridization occur. This conducted in breeder field which must be isolated even periodical isolation or distance isolation .

Periodical isolation : That means we can grow tow fields close to each other but we must plant the first field 15 days at least before the second one .

Distance isolation : means in case of corn that distance between each tow breeder fields must be 500 meters at least because corn is open pollinated crop.
4. Genetic Engineering : (GeneTranserence) Isolation of specific genes which are responsible for better quality and higher yielding plants even under stress conditions such as salinity and drought .

Cropping systems and intensive Cropping patterns **********

crop rotation :
Is a cropping sequence which is applied in a specific area of land for limited period of time to obtain optimum yield preservation of soil fertility and reduction pests infestation .

Objectives
1.Production of various types of crops and products such as cereals, legumes, fibers, oil, sugar, vegetables for local consumption and export of possible . 2.Production of green forage crops to provide sufficient feeding products for farm animals through the year for production of dairy products and meat . 3.Production of industrial ( cash crops ) such as cotton,sugar cane, sugar beet and sunflower .

4.Preservation of soil fertility and utilization of all available resources ( land water labor ) for sustainable production system . 5.Increasing organic matter addition to the soil . 6.Constant farm income and avoiding drastic market fluctuations in prices of Agricultural products .

7.Reduction of pest problems by application of integrated pest management programs . 8.Improvement of soil productivity and physical conditions . 9.Distribution of required labor work throughout the year .

How crop rotation can improve soil conditions( physical and chemical )?

1.Using different crops with different nutritional requirements will maintain the natural balance between nutritional elements in the soil . For example .. legumes consume more phosphorus than cereals , which consume more nitrogen than
legumes .

2.Planting deep rooted crops will improve the physical condition of the subsoil surface . 3.Including legumes in the rotation will increase organic nitrogen content in the soil . 4.Application of different fertilization programs will help in maintaining the nutritional balance in the soil , Also the application of different tillage programs will help in improving the physical conditions of the soil layers in terms of surface and subsoil .

How does the crop rotation help in pest control ?

Every crop could be attacked only by certain pests so cultivation one crop over a long period of time will increase the population of its associative pests which may reach epidemic levels that cant be tolerated .

How we can control weeds by crop rotation?

Crop rotation is a high effective tool for weed control because certain species are adapted to specific crops such as wild oats with wheat and barley and Broom rape with brood beans . So rotation included crops with different growth habits planting methods specially with the application of proper weed control practices will keep weed densities at its minimum .

 Factors affecting crop selection

1.Labor requirements : for the planted crops throughout the season is major consideration if labor not available we select crops which require minimum amount of work . 2.Presence of certain pests: may limit the farmer choice of crops to be included in the rotation specially parasitic weeds or in case of epidemic infestations by certain pests which require sowing immune crops to those pests .

3.Adaptability for local conditions in terms of soil type climatic conditions , labor availability and economical conditions . 4.Diversification of selected crops to avoid the failure of the production 5.operation due to weather or adverse climatic conditions or pest attacks or low prices .

1.Selection of the most suitable crops for local climate and soil type . 2.Determination of the area devoted to each crop according to farmers interests . 3.Define rotation time Main crop duration ( years ) Rotation time = _________________________ Its land ratio

A C B

B A C

C B A

A = Wheat B = Clover C = Beans Main crop = wheat

1 Rotation time = ________ = 3 years 1/3

Number of sections : Rotation time ( years ) 3 = _____________________ = ____ = 3 sections

1Major crop duration

5.Division of included crops to legumes and non legumes , winter and summer- crops and deep and . shallow rooted crops 6.Evaluation of obtained results on annual bases in terms of farm income , pest infestation and labor requirements

Examples of crop rotations 1. 2years cotton rotation :

A = clover followed by cotton B=wheat or fababean followed by maize or soybeans
2.years Number of sections = ______ = 2 1.years

2011 A B

2012
B A

2013 A B

1. 3years rotation :
A = clover followed by cotton B = wheat followed by maize or soybean C = Broad bean followed by rice
3.years Number of sections = ______ = 3 1.years 2011 A B C 2012 B C A 2013 C A B

Advantage of 3 year rotation over 2 years :1.More balanced in terms of income . 2.Lower consumption of soil nutritional elements . 3.Reducing pest problems due to broader diversity of crops . 4.More legumes which add organic nitrogen to the soil.

 Farming systems
__________________

It is sowing the same crop year after year without rotation with other crops Intensive system :Like growing rice in south Asia ( China ) 2 3 times each year . Non intensive system :Like corn , wheat and cotton belt in USA which these crops are planted one time in the year in the devoted area .

Problems associated with monoculture farming system

1.Epidemic infestations of pest problems . 2.Market fluctuations in prices would be of great effect on the formers . 3.Rapid deterioration in land fertility by cultivating the same crop year after year specially the non legume crops .

Advantages of monoculturesystem :1) Greater profits due to lower costs of machinery and facilities . 2)Climatic conditions may favor one crop . 3) The farmers may prefer sowing a single crop because they a specialist in its production . 4)Soil types may favor the production of one specific crop . 5)The grower may not wish to be fully occupied by farming all year around .

Intercropping

Cultivation of two crops in the same area in one season to obtain optimum diverse production per unit area of land . In intercropping system there are tow crops one is the main crop and the second is a secondary crop, Each crop of them under intercropping will produce less than its production in single sowing .

Land equivalent Ratio ( LER )

Main crop yield (intercropped) secondary crop yield (Interc.) = _____________________________ + _____________________________ Main crop yield(single sowing) secondary crop yield(single sow)

High production per unit area of land must be obtained by sowing the tow crops as compared to the single production of any of them . and LER value must be greater than the additional costs of sowing the secondary crop .

How we select the suitable crop to intercropping ?

The following must be taken in consideration
1.Crops with different growth habits in terms of the rooting system , Shape and plant height . 2.Crops with similar management practices (howingirrigation and Fertilization ) . 3.Grasses with legumes to maintain soil fertility and nutritional Balance .

Examples of intercroping system in Egypt

1.Soybean with maize in rows at a ratio of tow to two (2 : 2). 2.Fababean with sugarcane (when sugarcane is planted for the fist time in Upper Egypt) with full plantation . 3.Onion with cotton by planting onion on the Northern side of cotton rows .