Databasefundamentals Presentation

Database Fundamentals
Basic & Intermediate
About the Author

Created By: Cognizant Academy
Version and Date:
ESSENCEOFDBASE/PPT/0604/1.0
Copyright 2005, Cognizant Academy, All Rights Reserved
Icons used
Questions References
Key Concepts
Demo
Brain Teasers
A Welcome Break
Module Information
Module Description This module provides students with the basic knowledge and skills that are needed to understand the need for databases and how they can design them
Level Prerequisites
Basic & Intermediate Basic knowledge of data and files
Module Objective & Outline

Module Objective:
After completing this Module, you would :
Understand what is a Database System

Know different types of Database Systems Be able to create a Database environment with ER Modeling Have a broad overview on Relational Database Management System Have an introduction to Structured Query Language Understand how the DBMS & its host computer system intercommunicate Be aware of the new trends in Database
Module Outline
Module Flow:
1.
What is a Database System
2.
Types of Database Systems
3.
Creating a Database Environment
4.
Structured Query Language
5.
Internal Management
6.
Database Trends
1.0 Database System

Learning Objective: At the end of this Topic you will be able to Understand what is a Database System Know how files are organized
Appreciate the advantages of using a DBMS over a

traditional file system Be aware of the Database Architecture
What is a Database System

A Database System is essentially a computerized record-keeping system. A database-management system (DBMS) consists of a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to access those data. Database systems are designed to manage large volume of information.
File Organization : Terms and Concepts

Database: Group of related files File: Group of records of same type Record: Group of related fields Field: Group of words or a complete number Byte: Group of bits that represents a single character Bit: Smallest unit of data; binary digit (0,1)
Data Hierarchy in a Computer System

Entity: Person, place, thing, event about which information is maintained Attribute: Description of a particular entity Key Field: Identifier field used to retrieve, update, sort a record
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Problems with the Traditional File Environment Data redundancy Program-Data dependence Lack of flexibility Poor security Lack of data-sharing and availability No concurrency control
Traditional File Processing
11
DBMS and its Advantages

A Database Management System is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. It is a general purpose software system that facilitates processes of defining, constructing and manipulating databases for various applications. Advantages of Database approach:
Controlling Redundancy Restricting Unauthorized access Providing persistent storage for program objects and data structures
Permitting inference and actions using deduction rules

Providing multiple user interface Representing complex relationships among data Enforcing integrity constraints and providing backup and recovery
Copyright 2005, Cognizant Academy, All Rights Reserved 12
Database Management System (DBMS)

Acts as an interface between the application programs and physical data files. Separates logical and physical views of data Eliminates redundancy of data
Creates and maintains databases

Enforces data security
DBMS Architecture
Internal Schema : Describes physical storage structure of database Conceptual Schema : Describes structure whole database for community of users. External Schema : of a
Each view describes that part of database that a particular user requires, and hides the rest.
DBMS Architecture
Data Independence
Logical
schema.
data
independence
capacity
to
change
conceptual schema without having to change external
Physical data independence : capacity to change internal

schema without changing conceptual schema.
15
Functions of DBMS
Data definition: Specifies content and structure of database and defines each data element Data manipulation: Manipulates data in a database Data security and integrity: Monitors user requests and rejects any unauthorized attempts Data recovery and concurrency: Enforces certain controls for recovery and concurrency Data dictionary: Stores definitions of data elements, and data characteristics Performance: Functions should be performed efficiently
16
Requirements of a DBMS
Key elements in a database environment: Data Administration Data Planning and Modeling Methodology Database Technology Management Users and
17
Database System : Recap

How does a database management system help businesses information? Why do businesses have trouble finding the improve the organization of their
information they need in their information systems?

What are the advantages of using a DBMS over a traditional file system State the major functions and requirements of a DBMS
Quiz
If a Customer Database has the following fields : EmpId, EmpName, Salary and DeptName, What would be the ideal Key field and why ? EmpID EmpName DeptName EmpId+DeptName
19
2.0 Types of Databases

Learning Objective: At the end of this Topic you will be able to explain briefly the various types of Database Systems Relational DBMS Hierarchical DBMS Network DBMS Object-Oriented Databases
20
Relational Database Model

Represents data as two-dimensional tables called relations Relates data across tables based on common data element
Examples: DB2, Oracle, MS SQL Server
21
Three Basic Operations in a Relational Database

Select: Creates subset of rows that meet specific criteria
Join: Combines relational tables to provide users with information

Project: Enables users to create new tables containing only relevant information
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Three Basic Operations in a Relational Database
JOIN
SELECT PROJECT
Hierarchical Database Model

It is a pointer based model Organizes data in a tree-like structure Stores data in tables and views relationships as links Supports one-to-many parent-child relationships Prevalent in large legacy systems
24
Network DBMS
Depicts data logically as many-to-many relationships Organizes data in tables and views relationships as links It is also a pointer based model Organizes data in arbitrary graphs
25
Hierarchical and Network DBMS

Some of the Disadvantages
Outdated
Complex pointer based organization

Less flexible compared to RDBMS Lack support for ad-hoc and English language-like queries
26
Object-Oriented Databases
Object-oriented DBMS: Stores data and procedures as objects that can be retrieved and shared automatically Object-relational DBMS: Provides capabilities of both objectoriented and relational DBMS
27
Types of Databases : Summary

In a relational database the data is perceived as tables (and nothing but tables) by the user
The relational operators available are used to manipulate the

data in the tables
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3.0 Creating a DB environment

Learning Objective:
At the end of this Topic you will
Have the ability to model an application system based on the E-R Modeling approach. Understand the Relational Database concepts like Normalization, Data Integrity, Relational Operations like Union, Intersection etc. Be able to Design Relational Databases based on E-R Models or System Requirements for an application.
29
Introduction to Data Modeling

What is Data Modeling? A technique for analyzing requirements and for identifying the information
needs of an organization
Why Data Modeling is important? Cannot build a good system without knowing what data needs to be
captured and how it needs to be organized
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Introduction to Data Modeling

An Overview :
Conceptual representation of the data structures required by a database Data structures include the data objects, the associations between data objects, and the rules which govern operations on the objects Focuses on what data is required and how it should be organized
Independent of hardware or software constraints
Data Model And Database Design:

Data Model is to a Database what a Building plan or a blueprint is to a Building A Database Design translates a data model into a database A Data Model is the conceptual design of a database
31
E-R Modeling
Originally proposed by Peter Chen (1976) Views the real world as entities and relationships
Key component is the E-R Diagram

Most common model used for designing relational databases
Entity- An identifiable object or concept of significance Attribute- Property of an entity or relationship Relationship- An association between entities Identifier- one or more attributes identifying an instance (occurrence) of an entity
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Entity relationship diagram
33
E-R Modeling
Entity
has
DEPARTMENT Dept No. Name
works for
EMPLOYEE Name Emp Id.
Identifier
Relationship
Attributes
34
E-R Modeling
Entity
Any object or thing of significance about which data needs to be collected
and maintained
Could be Concrete or tangible like a person or a building
Abstract like a concept or activity
Analogous to a table in a relational database
Examples: EMPLOYEES, PROJECTS, INVOICES
35
E-R Modeling
Entity Rules
Any thing or object may only be represented by one entity. Entities are
mutually exclusive in all cases.

Each entity must be uniquely identifiable. Each instance (occurrence) of an entity must be separate and distinctly identifiable from all other instances of that type of entity.
Entity Classification and Types

Classified as dependent and independent An independent entity is one that does not rely on another for identification A dependent entity is one that relies on another for identification In some, methodologies, the terms used are strong and weak, respectively
E-R Modeling
Entity Classification and Types
Fundamental entity - An entity that exists and is of interest in its own right.
Generally, most entities in the data model are fundamental entities.

Example :Department and Employee are both fundamental entities
Special Entity Types

Associative Entity -Used to associate two entities in order to reconcile a
many-many relationship
Sub-type/super-type- Used in generalization hierarchies to represent a subset of instances of their of parent entity
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E-R Modeling
Example of Associative entity :
ORDER
has belongs to
ORDER LINE
for a appears on
ITEM
38
E-R Modeling
Generalization Hierarchies
Generalization occurs when two or more entities represent categories of the same real-world object.
Example: CAR and TRUCK represent categories of the same
entity, VEHICLE is the super-type; CAR and TRUCK would be

the subtypes
39
E-R Modeling
Form of abstraction that specifies that two or more entities that share common attributes can be generalized into a higher level entity type called a super-type or generic entity. The lower-level of entities become the sub-type, or categories, to the super-type. Sub-types are dependent entities.
40
E-R Modeling
Generalization Hierarchies Sub-types can be either mutually exclusive (disjoint) or overlapping (inclusive) In an overlapping hierarchy an entity instance can be part of multiple subtypes
Example: Entity PERSON represents people at a university. It has three subtypes, FACULTY, STAFF, and STUDENT. A STAFF member could also be registered as a STUDENT
PERSON
STUDENT
STAFF
FACULTY
41
E-R Modeling
In a disjoint hierarchy, an entity instance can be in only one subtype.
Example: Entity EMPLOYEE, may have two subtypes, CLASSIFIED and WAGES. An employee may be one type or the other but not both
42
E-R Modeling
Generalization Hierarchies - Nested
PERSON
STUDENT
FACULTY
UNDERGRAD
GRADUATE
43
E-R Modeling
Attribute
Attributes describe a property or a characteristic of an entity
A particular instance of an attribute is a value.

For example John Doe is one value of the attribute Name. Simple attribute Contains only atomic values Composite attribute Has component attributes
FName MI
Student DOB Simple

Name
LName Composite
44
E-R Modeling
Attribute Classification
Single-valued attribute Has exactly one value per instance of an entity Multi-valued attribute Contains repeating values per instance of an entity
Multi-valued Singlevalued Module Id Student
Math
Physics
45
E-R Modeling
Identifiers and Descriptors Attributes can be classified as identifiers or descriptors
Identifiers, more commonly called keys, uniquely identify an
instance of an entity.
A descriptor describes a non-unique characteristic of an entity instance. An Example : Entity: Employee Unique Identifier: Employee No. Descriptor: Name, DOJ, DOB
46
E-R Modeling
Relationship
Represents an association between two or more entities
Examples
- Employees work for Departments
- Departments manage one or more projects - Employees are assigned to projects - Projects have sub-tasks - Orders have line items
Defined in terms of: - Degree

- Connectivity
- Cardinality
- Direction - Type - Existence
E-R Modeling
Degree
Number of entities associated with the relationship
Binary relationships, the association between two entities is the

most common type in the real world. N-ary is the general form for degree n
Connectivity
Mapping of associated entity instances in the relationship.
The values of connectivity are "one" or "many.
Cardinality
Actual number of related occurrences for each of the two entities.
The basic types of connectivity for relations are: one-to-one, one-to-many,

and many-to-many.
48
E-R Modeling
Connectivity and Cardinality
A one-to-one (1:1) relationship is when at most one instance of a entity A Is
associated with one instance of entity B.

For example: Employees in the company are each assigned their own office. For each Employee there exists a unique office and for each office there exists a
unique employee.
A one-to-many (1:N) relationships is when for one instance of entity A, there are zero, one, or many instances of entity B, but for one instance of entity B, there is only one instance of entity A.
An example :
A department has many employees each employee is assigned to one department
49
E-R Modeling
Connectivity and Cardinality
A many-to-many relationship, is when for one instance of entity A,
there are zero, one, or many instances of entity B and for one
instance of entity B there are zero, one, or many instances of entity A.
An example is: employees can be assigned to no more than two projects at the same time; Project must have assigned at least three employees
50
E-R Modeling
Direction
Indicates the originating entity of a binary relationship. The entity from
which a relationship originates is the parent entity; the entity where the
relationship terminates is the child entity.
Type
The direction of a relationship is determined by its connectivity.
Identifying and Non-identifying

An identifying relationship is one in which one of the child entities is also dependent entity. A non-identifying relationship is one in which both entities are independent.
51
E-R Modeling
Existence
Denotes whether the existence of an entity instance is dependent upon the existence of another, related, entity instance. Defined as either mandatory or optional.
Mandatory and optional relationship

If an instance of an entity must always occur for an entity to be included in a relationship, then it is mandatory. If the instance of the entity is not required, it is optional.
Example:
Mandatory : Every project must be managed by a single department Optional : Employees may be assigned to work on projects
52
E-R Modeling
E-R Notation
No standard notation
Original notation by Chen

Common notations are: Bachman, crow's foot, and IDEFIX All styles represent entities as rectangular boxes and relationships
as lines connecting boxes

Each style uses a special set of symbols to represent the cardinality of a connection
53
E-R Modeling
Entities
Represented by labeled rectangles The label is the name of the entity Entity names should be singular nouns.
Relationships
Represented by a solid line connecting two entities. Name written above the line Relationship names should be verbs
Employee
Works for
Department
54
E-R Modeling
Attributes
Listed inside the entity rectangle Underlined Names should be singular nouns
Employee
EmpID EmpName
Cardinality
Many is represented by a line ending in a crow's foot. If omitted, cardinality is one
Existence
Represented by placing a circle or a perpendicular bar on the line Mandatory existence is shown by the bar next to the entity for an instance that is required Optional existence is shown by placing a circle next to the entity that is optional
55
E-R Modeling : Assignment

How to create an E-R Model from Requirements ? Step 1: Identify Entities
Entities are things people talk about, record information about and do
work on by definition Any keyword (noun) is a candidate Identify generic object from reference to instances or occurrences
Combine synonyms to represent a single entity

An Example : Purchase Order - System Requirements A buyer creates a purchase order (PO) as and when the need arises. A PO is for a
Specific vendor. A PO has one or more line items. A buyer cannot create a PO of
Total value more than his approval limit. A PO can be sent to the vendor by mail, fax, EDI. A PO can be canceled before it is submitted. A PO can be linked to a sales order
E-R Modeling
Step 1: Identify Entities
Entities
Purchase Order (PO) Buyer? Vendor Line Items Sales Order Approval Limit?
Buyer characterizes a PO Approval Limit characterizes a Buyer
What does it tell us?

Approval Limit is not an entity Buyer is an entity Approval Limit is an attribute of the entity Buyer
57
E-R Modeling
Step 2: Identify Relationships
Look for phrases describing a link between two things or objects
Verbs relating two nouns often suggest relationships

e.g. A buyer creates a purchase order, A purchase order has one or more Lines Requirements may or may not contain information regarding degree,
existence, cardinality of a relationship up front

Further questioning may need to be done to determine the above
58
E-R Modeling
Step 2: Identify Relationships Grid Technique
PO PO Buyer replaced by creates a Buyer is approver of Vendor
Vendor Line
supplies against a belongs to a
created for item supplied by
Line -
59
E-R Modeling
Step 2 : Identify Relationships
Analyzing Existing Systems (Files, Databases)
Look for Pointers Foreign Keys Repeating Groups
Structured Codes
All of the above imply relationships
60
E-R Modeling
Step 3 : Identify Attributes An attribute is any detail that server to identify, classify, quantify or
express the the state of an entity Ask the following question for each entity What information do you need
to know or hold about ?

Potential attributes are easily found by examining paper forms
61
E-R Modeling
Step 3: Identify Attributes
Example Purchase Order Form
Purchase Order No __________ Buyer _________ Vendor ___________ Date Created ______
Purchase Order No
Vendor Buyer Date Created Item? Address City State Zip Total Value?
62
No Item Quantity Value ___ ___________ ______ __________ ___ ___________ ______ __________ ___ ___________ ______ __________ Shipping Address Street _________ City __________ Total Value ______ Zip _______
E-R Modeling
E-R Model of the Purchase Order Example
creates
BUYER
created for a
PURCHASE ORDER
created by
has
supplies against belongs to

VENDOR
exists on
ITEM LINE
created for
63
E-R Modeling
Major Modeling Techniques Peter Chens original entity/relationship diagrams Information Engineering Richard Barkers notation, used by Oracle corporation IDEF1X Object Role Modeling Unified Modeling Language (UML) Extensible Markup Language (XML)
64
E-R Modeling
Major Modeling Techniques
Data Modeling has sets of two audiences:
User community - Uses the models to verify that the analysts understand their environment and their requirements. Systems designers - Use the business rules implied by the models as the basis for their design of computer systems.
Different techniques are better for one audience or the other.

All techniques are fundamentally the same Differences are mainly in syntactic or notational
65
Relational Model
Objective :
To give an informal introduction to relational concepts especially as they
relate to relational database design issues.
What it is not ?
This does not give a complete description of relational theory.
66
Relational Model
Formally introduced by Dr. E. F. Codd in 1970 Represents data in the form of two-dimension tables A relational database is a collection of two-dimensional tables Basic understanding of the model needed to design and use relational databases
67
Relational Model
Tables, Columns and Rows Relationships and Keys
Data Integrity
Normalization What is a table?
Represents some real-world person, place, thing, or event Two-dimensional
Columns Rows
Course No. CIS 120 MKT 333 ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345
Course_Title Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase
C_Hrs. Dept. C 4 Cis 3 MKT 3 ECO 5 ECO 4 CIS

68
Relational Model
Table
Columns represent a property of the person, place, thing or event that the table represents Rows represent an occurrence or instance of what the table represents A data value is stored in the intersection of a row and column Each named column has a domain, which is the set of values that may appear in that column
Empid Name Level
M3 M4
DOJ
4/10/98 1/23/01
Manager
101667 101412
101412 John 102235 Nancy
Employee
101398 Mike
101667 Jeff 103893 Cindy 101116 Rahul 102739 Scott
S1
M2 M3 S2 C1
8/15/95
6/2/96 7/17/95 2/20/00 4/13/01
101667
100351 101284 101412 101667
69
Relational Model
Table - Terminology
In this document
Formal Terms
Many Database Manuals
Table
Relation
Table
Column
Attribute
Field
Row
Tuple
Record
70
Relational Model
Salient features of a relational table Values are atomic (1NF)
Column values are of the same kind (Domain)
Each Row is unique (Primary Key) Sequence of columns is insignificant Sequence of rows is insignificant
Each column must have a unique name

Relationships and Keys
Keys - Fundamental to the concept of relational databases Relationship - An association between two or more tables defined by means of keys
71
Relational Model
Primary Key Column or a set of columns that uniquely identify a row in a table
Must be unique and must have a value
Foreign Key Column or set of columns which references the primary key or a
unique key of another table Rows in two tables are linked by matching the values of the foreign key in one table with the values of the primary key in another
EMP_ID in table EMPLOYEE is the primary key DEPT_NO in table DEPARTMENT is the primary key DEPT_NO in table EMPLOYEE is a foreign key Examples
72
Relational Model
Data Integrity Ensures correct and consistent navigation and manipulation of
relational tables
Two types of integrity rules
Entity integrity Referential integrity
The entity integrity rule states that the value of the primary key can
never be a null value The referential integrity rule states that if a relational table has a foreign key, then every value of the foreign key must either be null or match the
values in the relational table in which that foreign key is a primary key
73
Relational Model
Data Manipulation Relational tables are equivalent to sets
Operations that can be performed on sets can be performed
on relational tables Relational Operations such as :
Selection Projection Join Union Intersection Difference Product Division
INTERSECTION UNION
DIFFERENCE Copyright 2005, Cognizant Academy, All Rights Reserved 74
Relational Model
Selection The select operator, sometimes called restrict to prevent confusion with
the SQL SELECT command, retrieves subsets of rows from a relational table based on a value(s) in a column or columns
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B
A C B D C A B
C
212 45 8656 324 5656 445 546
D
Y N N N Y N Y
E
2 84 4 56 34 4 55
75
Relational Model
Projection The project operator retrieves subsets of columns from a relational table
removing duplicate rows from the result
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B
A C B D C A B
C
212 45 8656 324 5656 445 546
D
Y N N N Y N Y
E
2 84 4 56 34 4 55
76
Relational Model
Product
The product of two relational tables, also called the Cartesian Product, is the concatenation of every row in one table with every row in the second. The product of table A (having m rows) and table B (having n rows) is the table C (having m x n rows). The product is denoted as A X B or A TIMES B ak k x
A B C
ax
A A A B B B C C C
ay
2 2 2 4 4 4 6 6 6
bk
1 4 5 1 4 5 1 4 5
bx
A D E A D E A D E
by
2 8 10 2 8 10 2 8 10
77
y
2 4 6
Table A
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
1 2 3
A TIMES B
k
Table B
1
4 5
x
A
D E
y
2
8 10
Relational Model
Join
Combines the product, selection and projection operations Combines (concatenates) data from one row of a table with rows from another or same table Criteria involve a relationship among the columns in the join relational table
If the join criterion is based on equality of column value, the result is called an equi join A natural join is an equi join with redundant columns removed Joins can also be done on criteria other than equality. Such joins are called non-equi joins
k
1
a
A
b
2
k Table B k
1 3 5
a
A
b
2
k
1
c
aa
Equi-Join
2
3
B
C
4
6
c
aa bb cc
bb
k Natural Join 1
3
a
A C
b
2 6
c
aa bb
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Table A
Relational Model
Union
The UNION operation of two tables is formed by appending rows from one table to those of a second to produce a third. Duplicate rows are eliminated Tables in an UNION operation must have the same number of columns and corresponding columns must come from the same domain A Union B
k
1 2 3
x
A B C
y
2 4 6
k
1
x
A B C D E
y
2 4 6 8 10
Table B
Table A
k
1 4 5
x
A D E
y
2 8 10
3 4 5
79
Relational Model
The UNION operation of two tables is formed by appending rows from one table to those of a second to produce a third. Duplicate rows are eliminated Tables in an UNION operation must have the same number of columns and corresponding columns must come from the same domain A Union B
k
1 2 3
x
A B C
y
2 4 6
k
1
x
A B C D E
y
2 4 6 8 10
Table B
Table A
k
1 4 5
x
A D E
y
2 8 10
3 4 5
80
Relational Model
Intersection The intersection of two relational tables is a third table that contains
common rows. Both tables must be union compatible. The notation for the intersection of A and B is A [intersection] B = C or A INTERSECT B A Intersect B k
1 2 3
x
A B C
y
2 4 6
k Table A
1 4 5
x
A D E
y
2 8 10
k
1
x
A
y
2
Table B
81
Relational Model
Difference The difference of two relational tables is a third that contains those
rows that occur in the first table but not in the second. The Difference
operation requires that the tables be union compatible.
The notation for difference is A MINUS B or A-B. As with arithmetic, the order of subtraction matters. That is, A - B is not the same as B - A.
k
1 2 3
x
A B C
y
2 4 6
A MINUS B Table A
k
2 3
x
B C
y
4 6
k
1 4 5
x
A D E
y
2 8 10
Table B
B MINUS A
k
4 5
x
D E
y
8 10
82
Relational Model
Division The division operator results in columns values in one table for which
there are other matching column values corresponding to every row in another table. k
1 1 2 3 4 3
x
A B A B B A
y
2 4 2 4 4 2 B 4
k
1 3
x
A
y
2
A DIV B
Table A
Table B
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Normalization
Normalization theory is based on the concepts of normal forms. A relational table is said to be a particular normal form if it satisfied a certain set of constraints.
We shall discuss four normal forms in this Module.
What is Functional Dependency ?

The concept of functional dependency is the basis for the first three normal forms. A column Y of a relational table is said to be functionally dependent upon column X when values of column Y are uniquely identified by values of column X. Full functional dependence applies to tables with composite keys. Column Y in relational table R is fully functional on X of R where X is a composite key if it is functionally dependent on X and not functionally dependent upon any subset of X.
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Normalization
Un normalized Relation Remove repeating groups
Normalized Relation (1NF) Remove partial dependencies 2 NF Remove transitive dependencies 3 NF
Remove remaining Anomalies resulting from FDs Remove multivalued dependencies
Boyce/Codd NF
85
Normalization
An Example : A company obtains parts from a number of suppliers. Each supplier is located in one city. A city can have more than one supplier located there and each city has a status code associated with it. Each supplier may provide many parts.
The company creates a simple relational table to store this information: FIRST (s#, status, city, p#, qty) s# status City p# Qty Supplier identification number Status code assigned to city City where supplier is located Part number of part supplied Qty of parts supplied to date
Composite primary key is (s#, p#)
86
Normalization
FIRST NORMAL FORM 1NF
A relational table is said to be in the first normal form if all values of the columns are atomic. That is, they contain no repeating values.
s#
s1 s1 s1
city
London London London
status
20 20 20
p#
p1 p2 p3
qty
300 100 200
s1
s2 s2 s3 s3
London
Paris Paris Tokyo Tokyo
20
10 10 30 30
p4
p1 p3 p2 p4
100
250 100 300 200
87
Normalization
SECOND NORMAL FORM 2NF

Table FIRST contains redundant data. Redundancy causes update Update anomalies - problems that arise when information is inserted, INSERT. The fact that a certain supplier (s5) is located in a particular city
(Athens) cannot be added until they supplied a part. DELETE. If a row is deleted, then not only is the information about quantity and part lost but also information about the supplier. UPDATE. If supplier s1 moved from London to New York, then six rows would have to be updated with this new information.
anomalies. deleted, or updated.
88
Normalization
A relational table is in second normal form 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-key column is fully dependent upon the primary key. That is, every non-key column
must be dependent upon the entire primary key.

FIRST is in 1NF but not in 2NF because status and city are functionally dependent upon only on the column s# of the composite key (s#, p#). Steps for transforming a 1NF table to 2NF is:
1. Identify any determinants other than the composite key, and the columns they determine. 2. Create and name a new table for each determinant and the unique columns it determines. 3. Move the determined columns from the original table to the new table. Determinate becomes the primary key of the new table. 4. Delete the columns you just moved from the original table except for the determinate which will serve as a foreign key.
Normalization
PARTS s#
s1 s1 s1 s1 s2 s2 s3 s3
p#
p1 p2 p3 p4 p1 p3 p2 p4
qty
300 100 200 100 250 100 300 200 s1 s2 s3
SECOND s# city
London Paris Tokyo
status
20 10 30
90
Normalization
Modification Anomalies Tables in 2NF but not in 3NF still contain modification anomalies: INSERT. The fact that a particular city has a certain status (Rome has a status of 50) cannot be inserted until there is a supplier in the city. DELETE. Deleting any row in SUPPLIER destroys the status information about the city as well as the association between supplier and city.
91
Normalization
THIRD NORMAL FORM 2NF
A relational table is in third normal form (3NF) if it is already in 2NF and every non-key column is non transitively dependent upon its primary key.
In other words, all non-key attributes are functionally dependent only upon the primary key.
SUPPLIER s#
s1
s2 s3 s4
city
London
Paris Tokyo Paris
status
20
10 30 10
The table supplier is in 2NF but not in 3NF because it contains a transitive dependency SUPPLIER.s# > SUPPLIER.city SUPPLIER.city > SUPPLIER.status SUPPLIER.s# > SUPPLIER.status
92
Normalization
Steps for transforming a table into 3NF is: 1. Identify any determinants, other the primary key, and the columns they determine. 2. Create and name a new table for each determinant and the unique columns it determines. 3. Move the determined columns from the original table to the new table. The determinant becomes the primary key of the new table.
SUPPLIER
s1 The transformation of SUPPLIER into 3NF s2 s3 s4 s5
s#
city
London Paris Tokyo Paris London
CITY_STATUS city
London Paris Tokyo Rome
status
20 10 30 50
93
Normalization
Advantages of 3rd Normal form : Eliminates redundant data which in turn saves space and reduces manipulation anomalies.
INSERT: Facts about the status of a city, Rome has a status of 50, can be added even though there is not supplier in that city. DELETE: Information about supplier can be deleted without destroying information about a city. UPDATE: Changing the location of a supplier or the status of a city requires modifying only one row.
Example:
s#
s1 The transformation of SUPPLIER into 3NF s2 s3 s4
city
London Paris Tokyo Paris London
CITY_STATUS city
London Paris Tokyo Rome
status
20 10 30 50
94
SUPPLIER
s5
Normalization
Advanced Forms :: BOYCE CODD NORMAL FORM Many practitioners argue that placing entities in 3NF is generally sufficient because it is rare that entities that are in 3NF are not also in 4NF and 5NF. The advanced forms of normalization are: Boyce-Codd Normal Form
Fourth Normal Form

Fifth Normal Form Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) is a more rigorous version of the 3NF.
BCNF is based on the concept of determinants. A determinant column

is one on which some of the columns are fully functionally dependent. A relational table is in BCNF if and only if every determinant is a candidate key.
Database Design
This section presents and discusses
How to translate the E-R (conceptual) model (diagram) to an RDBMS (logical) schema. Exercise on E-R Modeling and Database Design
Some Guidelines Entities: Create one table for each simple (not a sub-type or supertype) entity. Attributes: Map each attribute to a candidate column with a more precise format. Optional attributes become null columns Mandatory attributes become not null columns Unique Identifier: Convert the components of the unique identifier to the primary key of the table.
Database Design
Sub-types: A sub-type entity is simply an entity with its own attributes or relationships, but it also inherits any attributes and/or relationships from its
parent entity (super-type)

1:1 relationships: Merge the two entities into a single table, keeping all attributes. Identify (add if needed) the primary key. 1:Many relationships: Create two tables, one for each entity. Post the primary key from the 1 side to the N side (add attributes), and identify it as a foreign key. (Add the primary key from the 1 side to the attributes on the Many side. The posted attributes are a foreign key.) M:N (Many:Many) relationships: Create a new (bridge) table and post the primary keys from both entities as attributes in the new table. The posted attributes are foreign keys.
Database Design
A few comments
There are more rules, treating exceptions, but these are good enough in most cases There may occur reasons to violate the rules. Always: use common sense and expect iterative development. Use CASE tools like ERWin wherever possible. Tools can automatically generate SQL table definitions from drawn E-R diagrams.
98
Database Design:: Assignment
Develop an E-R model and database schema for a system to handle purchase orders.
99
Creating a DB environment : Summary

The first step in designing a database application is to understand what information the database needs to store and
what integrity constraints or business rules apply to the data.

Data Model is to a Database what a Building plan or a blueprint is to a Building. It is the conceptual model of the Database. Given a relational schema we need to decide whether it is a good design or whether we need to decompose it into smaller relations. Normalization gives the guidance to such decomposition.
100
4.0 Structured Query Language

Learning Objectives: At the end of this Topic you will be able to
Write simple SQL queries

Get familiar with the various relational operations such as SELECT, PROJECT and JOIN
101
An Introduction
Structured Query Language - (SQL) is the most widely used commercial relational database language. The SQL has several parts :
DML The Data Manipulation Language (DML) DDL The Data Definition Language (DDL) Embedded and dynamic SQL Security Transaction management Client-server execution and remote database access
SELECT column-list FROM table-names WHERE condition(s)
102
Query Processing
Query Processing
Query in a High Level Language (typically a 4 GL)
Parsing : The parser converts a query, submitted by a database user and written in a high-level language, into an algebraic operators expression.
Optimization : It is the key Topic for query processing design. It receives the expression and builds a good execution plan. The plan determines the order of execution of the operators and selects suitable algorithms for implementation of the operators. Code Generation for the Query : The planned code is built with the aim of retrieving the result of the query with high performance. Code execution by Database Processor : The query plan is executed by the execution engine Topic that delivers the result for the user. Result of the Query
103
Query Processing
SELECT column-list FROM table-names WHERE condition(s)
Conditional Selection
137 150
Door latch Door seal
22.50 6.00
104
Query Processing
The SQL Select Statement performs three Types of Operations
1. Projection
SELECT column-list FROM tables-names WHERE condition(s) 2. Join 3. Selection
105
Performing Projection
SELECT Module_Title, C_Hrs FROM Module
Module
Course No. CIS 120 MKT 333 ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345 Course_Title Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase C_Hrs. Dept. C 4 3 3 5 4 Cis MKT ECO ECO CIS
Result Table
Course_Title Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase C_Hrs. 4 3 3 5 4
106
Performing a Selection Operation

SELECT * FROM Module WHERE C_Hrs = 4
Course No. CIS 120 MKT 333 ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345
Course Title Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase
C. Hrs. Dept. C 4 3 3 5 4 Cis MKT ECO ECO CIS
Module
Course No. CIS 120 CIS 345
Course Title Intro to CIS Intro to Dbase
C. Hrs. Dept. C 4 Cis 4 CIS
Result Table
107
Performing both Projection and Selection

SELECT Module_Title, C_Hrs FROM Module WHERE Dept_C =CIS
Module
Course_No CIS 120 MKT 333 ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345 Course_Title Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase C_ Hrs. Dept_C 4 3 3 5 4 CIS MKT ECO ECO CIS
Result Table
Course_Title Intro to CIS Intro to Dbase C_ Hrs. 4 4
108
Performing both Projection and Selection

Basic SELECT Statement WHERE Clause Operators
=, <, >, <=, >= IN (List) WHERE CODE IN (ABC, DEF, HIJ) - would return only rows with one of those 3 literal values for the code attribute BETWEEN min_val AND max_val WHERE Qty_Ord BETWEEN 5 and 15 - would return rows where Qty_Ord is >= 5 and <= 15 - Works on character data using ascending alphabetical order LIKE literal with wildcards % used for multiple chars. _ single char. WHERE Name LIKE _o%son - returns rows where name has o as the 2nd character and ends with son - Torgeson or Johnson NOT WHERE NOT Name = Johnson - would return all rows where name <> Johnson - lowest priority in operator order AND and OR, Use Parentheses to control order
109
Joining Tables
Joining Tables
To appropriately join tables, the tables must be related and we apply a where clause which equates the primary key column of the table on the one side of the relationship with the parallel foreign key column of the many side table.
This type of join is called an Equi-join. Our example will join Modules and departments where dept_code is the linking key column.
The next series of slides takes you through a step by step process of combining data rows from one table with data rows in another table.
The first slide introduces the SQL Select statement the shows the join operation and a picture of the two tables that the join will operate on.
The next slides show progressive steps in the join process.
Joining Tables
Joining Two Tables - Select and Tables
SELECT * FROM Module C, department D WHERE D.Dept_Code = C.Dept_Code
Module
Course_No
CIS 120 MKT 333 ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345
Course_Title
Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase
C_Hrs Dept_Code
4 Cis 3 MKT 3 ECO 5 ECO 4 CIS
Department
SQL will compare every row of the 1st table with the first row of the 2nd table. Then it will compare all rows of the 1st with the second row of the second, and so on only rows where the condition is met are placed in the result table.
Dept Code MKT CIS ECO Dept name Office# Marketing 244 Comp. Info. Sys. 302 Economics 244
111
Joining Tables
Joining Two Tables - Row 1 Module to Row 1 Dept
Course_No
CIS 120 MKT 333
Course_Title
Intro to CIS Intro to Mkting Labor Econ. Intro to Stat. Intro to Dbase
C_Hrs Dept_Code
4 CIS 3 MKT 3 ECO 5 ECO 4 CIS
No match so row not placed in results
Module
ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345
Department
RESULT TABLE
Course_No Course_Title C_Hrs Dept_Code Dept_Name Office#
112
Joining Tables
SELECT * FROM Module C, department D WHERE D.Dept_Code = C.Dept_Code Match on condition causes a result row to be produced.
Course_No CIS 120 MKT 333 ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345
C_Hrs Dept_Code 4 Cis 3 MKT 3 ECO 5 ECO 4 CIS
Module
Department
RESULT TABLE
Course_No CIS 120 Course_Title Intro to CIS C_Hrs Dept_Code Dept_Name Office# 4 Cis Comp. Info S 302
113
Joining Tables
Course_No CIS 120 MKT 333
C_Hrs Dept_Code 4 Cis 3 MKT 3 ECO 5 ECO 4 CIS
Department
Module
ECO 473 BA201 CIS 345
RESULT TABLE
Course_No CIS 120 Course_Title Intro to CIS C_Hrs Dept_Code Dept_Name Office# 4 Cis Comp. Info S 302
114
5.0 Internal Management

Learning Objective
After completing this topic you will be able to :
Describe the various components of the computer system that provide data storage facilities to a DBMS Understand how DBMS communicates with the host system
Outline some of the database tuning factors
115
Computer file management and DBMS

Computer files are stored in external media such as disks and tapes.
Direct access Sequential access
Input output of data and memory management is managed by the Operating system
File manager Disk manager
DBMS File Request
DBMS/Host inter-com
File Manager
Logical Page Req
Disk Manager
Physical Page Access
116
Intercommunication
DBMS/Host communication :
A file is a collection of pages. A page is a unit of Input Output. The DBMS sends a file request to the file manager. The file manager has no idea where the requested page is physically stored. The file manager in turn communicates with the disk manager. The file manager provides the database system with the given page. The database system converts the same into a logical form as understandable by the user.
117
Tuning at the internal level

Indexes
Database indexes are important means of speeding up access to set of records. Especially in a relational database. Index is very useful in existence tests. Once a index is created it is transparent to the user.
Hashing
Hashing is directly determining a page address for a given record without the overhead of creating indexes. The main problem associated with hashing are overflow & underflow.
Clusters
Physically storing related pages in the form of intra file subsets. Inter file clustering to store records from distributed databases in the same physical page.
118
Internal Management : Summary

Database files are stored in logical page sets. The underlying physical files that store a database need not map to the logical representation of the DBMS. Indexes are useful means of speeding up data access in large databases . They incur overheads.
Hashed functions speed up individual record access, however has

overflow & underflow problems. Intra and inter file clustering of the physical records speed up certain operations at the cost of other types of data manipulations.
119
6.0 Database Trends

Learning Objective
At the end of this Topic you will be :
Familiar with various terms like OLAP Data warehousing
Data mining
Aware of the business needs that require data to be analyzed in multiple dimensions
120
Multidimensional Data Analysis

On-line analytical processing (OLAP) Multidimensional data analysis Supports manipulation and analysis of large volumes of data from multiple dimensions/perspectives
121
Types of databases
Major Types of Databases
Databases
centralised databases distributed databases network databases

Centralized database
Used by single central processor or multiple processors in client/server network
disk
CPU
printer Printer Controller
Tape Drive
Disk Controller
Tape drive Controller
System bus Memory Controller Memory
123
Distributed database
Stored in more than one physical location
Partitioned database Duplicated database
124
Multidimensional data model

On-line analytical processing (OLAP)
Multidimensional data analysis
Supports manipulation and analysis of large volumes of data from multiple dimensions/perspectives
125
Data warehouse
Supports reporting and query tools Stores current and historical data
Consolidates data for management analysis and decision making
126
Data warehouse
Data mart
Subset of data warehouse
Contains summarized or highly focused portion of data for a specified function or group of users
Data mining
Tools for analyzing large pools of data
Find hidden patterns and infer rules to predict trends
127
Databases and the web

Hypermedia database
Organizes data as network of nodes
Links nodes in pattern specified by user

Supports text, graphic, sound, video and executable programs
128
Databases and the web

Database server
Computer in a client/server environment runs a DBMS to process SQL
statements and perform database management tasks
Application server Software handling all application operations
129
Database Trends : Summary

The database forms the backend for any kind of application architecture be it a client server, distributed system such as the web etc. Users want to see data in as many dimensions possible, therefore it is important to be aware of concepts regarding Data warehousing , Data mining and On-line analytical processing (OLAP)
130
131
Database Fundamentals: Next Step

Resource Type Book Book Description Case*Method: Entity Relationship Modeling - Richard Barker Data & Databases Joe Celko Reference Topic or Topic
Book
Book Book Book
An Introduction to Database Systems C. J. Date

The Data Modeling Handbook Reingruber and Gregory Data Modeling for Information Professionals Bob Schmidt Data Model Patterns David C. Hay, Richard Barker
132
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Database Fundamentals

Basic & Intermediate

About the Author

Version and Date:

Copyright 2005, Cognizant Academy, All Rights Reserved

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Basic & Intermediate Basic knowledge of data and files

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Module Objective & Outline

Understand what is a Database System

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1.0 Database System

Appreciate the advantages of using a DBMS over a

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What is a Database System

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File Organization : Terms and Concepts

Data Hierarchy in a Computer System

File Organization : Terms and Concepts

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File Organization : Terms and Concepts

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DBMS and its Advantages

Permitting inference and actions using deduction rules

Database Management System (DBMS)

Creates and maintains databases

conceptual schema without having to change external

Physical data independence : capacity to change internal

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Database System : Recap

information they need in their information systems?

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2.0 Types of Databases

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Relational Database Model

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Three Basic Operations in a Relational Database

Join: Combines relational tables to provide users with information

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Three Basic Operations in a Relational Database

Hierarchical Database Model

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Hierarchical and Network DBMS

Complex pointer based organization

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Types of Databases : Summary

The relational operators available are used to manipulate the

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3.0 Creating a DB environment

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Introduction to Data Modeling

captured and how it needs to be organized

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Introduction to Data Modeling

Independent of hardware or software constraints

Data Model And Database Design:

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Key component is the E-R Diagram