LAN Technology

K. Suresh Sub Divisional Engineer(DX) Telephones: +91-120-2728412(O) +91-120-2728434(O) +91-120-2728839(R) E-mail: k_suresh@bsnl.
in
ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004
LAN Topology
Inter working Devices

Local Area Network (LAN)
Works in a single office, building or campus Most common LAN topologies are bus, ring & star Ethernet was early network introduced in 1980
Wide Area Network (WAN)

Provides long distance transmission over large geographical area
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Connecting number of LANs into a larger network using WAN circuits
ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 3
Network Topologies (Mesh & Star)

Topology is the geometric representation of all the links and linking devices
Dedicated point-topoint link between devices. Advantages: Dedicated link & fault isolation is easy Disadvantages: More Space/Hardware requirement
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central controller, called a hub. Advantages :Less expensive, fault isolation is easy & each device needs only one link Disadvantage : If hub fails, whole network will be down
HUB
Mesh Topology
Star Topology
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Network Topologies (Tree & Bus)

Tree Topology
The central hub in the tree is an active hub. An active hub contains a repeater. The secondary hubs can be active or passive.
HUB HUB
HUB
Bus Topology
Drop line Cable End Drop line Drop line Drop line Cable End
Tap
Tap
Tap
Tap
Advantages : Multi point, Ease of installation & Uses less cables than mesh/star/tree topologies Disadvantage: Difficult to add new devices & A fault in the bus cable stops all transmission000
Network Topologies (Ring & Hybrid)

Each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. Advantages: To add or delete a device, requires moving only two connections & Fault isolation is simplified Disadvantage : A break in ring can disable the entire network.
Star
Ring Topology
HUB
Hybrid Topology Mixed topology using Star/Mesh & Ring according to the need
HUB
Star
Bus
Ring
Inter-working Devices
Inter-working Devices
Hub Bridges LAN Switches Routers Gateways
Hub
Hubs
Hubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters: bits coming from one link go out all other links at the same rate no frame buffering no CSMA/CD at hub: adapters detect collisions
twisted pair
hub
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Hubs
The active central element of the star layout. When a single station transmits, the hub repeats the signal on the outgoing line to each station. Physically a star; logically a bus. Hubs can be cascaded in a hierarchical configuration.
Hubs
Operating at the physical layer, hubs are very simple devices that pass all traffic in both directions between the LAN sections they link. They may connect different types of cable, but use the same data link and network protocol. Strictly speaking, hubs are not considered part of a backbone network, but are usually repeaters or amplifiers.
Hub/Switch uses Star topology

Bus topology popular through mid 90s Now star topology prevails Connection choices:
hub or switch
hub or switch
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Interconnecting with hubs

Backbone hub interconnects LAN segments Extends max distance between nodes But individual segment collision domains become one large collision domain Cant interconnect 10BaseT & 100BaseT
hub
hub
hub
hub
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Bridges
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Bridges
Allow connections between LANs and to WANs Operates at Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of OSI Used between networks using identical physical and link layer protocols Provide a number of advantages
Reliability: Creates self-contained units Performance: Less contention Security: Not all data broadcast to all users Geography: Allows long-distance links
Bridges
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Bridge Functions
Read all frames from each network Accept frames from sender on one network that are addressed to a receiver on the other network Retransmit frames from sender using MAC protocol for receiver Must have some routing information stored in order to know which frames to pass
Bridges
If a bridge receives a packet with a destination address that is not in the address table, it forwards the packet to all networks or network segments except the one on which it was received. Bridges are a combination of both hardware and software, typically a black box that sits between the two networks, but can also be a computer with two NICs and special software.
Bridge Operation
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LAN Switch
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Switch: Forwarding
1 switch
hub
hub
hub
How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward frame? Looks like a routing problem...
Switch: Self learning

A switch has a switch table Entry in switch table:
(MAC Address, Interface, Time Stamp) stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
Switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces

when frame received, switch learns location of sender: incoming LAN segment records sender/location pair in switch table
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Switch: Filtering/Forwarding
When switch receives a frame:
Searches the switch table using MAC destination address If entry found for destination then forward the frame on interface indicated, if it has not come from the same segment Else drop the frame If no match found in the switch table, flood on all the other interfaces
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Switch example
1 switch 2 3 hub D F G hub I E H address interface A B E G 1 1 2 3
A B C
hub
Suppose C sends frame to D Switch receives frame from from C

notes in bridge table that C is on interface 1 because D is not in table, switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
Frame received by D
Switch example
switch address interface A B E G C 1 1 2 3 1
A B
hub
hub
D F G
hub I
Suppose D replies back with frame to C. Switch receives frame from D

notes in bridge table that D is on interface 2 because C is in table, switch forwards frame only to interface 1
Frame received by C
Switch: traffic isolation

Switch filters packets:
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segments segments become separate collision domains
switch collision domain hub
hub
hub
collision domain
collision domain
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Switches: dedicated access

Switch with many interfaces Hosts have direct connection to switch No collisions; full duplex
Switching: A-to-A and B-to-B simultaneously, no collisions
A
C B
switch
C B A
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Switches
Like bridges, switches operate at the data link layer. Switches connect two or more computers or network segments that use the same data link and network protocol. They may connect the same or different types of cable.
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Switches
Switches operate at the same layers as bridges but differ from them in two ways:
First, most switches enable all ports to be in use simultaneously, making them faster than bridges. Second, unlike bridges, switches dont learn addresses, and need to have addresses defined.
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Ethernet Hubs and Switches

Shared medium hubs
Switched LAN hubs
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Switched Ethernet
A simple concept behind switched Ethernet - replace the LAN hub with a switch. Each computer now has its own dedicated point-topoint circuit. By increasing the number of connections from the server to the switch, the throughput of the server will be improved because of more circuits.
Switched Ethernet
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Types of Switches
Switch establishes a connection between two segments just long enough to send the current packet Incoming packets (part of an Ethernet frame) are saved to a temporary memory area (buffer) MAC address contained in the header is read and then compared to a list of addresses maintained in the switch's lookup table
Types of Switches
Routes the packet using one of the following methods:

Cut-through Store-and-forward Fragment-free
Cut-through Switching
After storing the MAC Address (6 bytes) immediately begin sending the packet to the destination node, even as the rest of the packet is coming into the switch.
No CRC Checking (disadvantage) Fast switching (advantage)
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Store-and-forward Switching
Switch will save the entire packet to the buffer and check it for CRC errors or other problems before sending. Otherwise, the switch looks up the MAC address and sends the packet on to the destination node.
Slow (disadvantage) Error free operation (advantage)
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Fragment-free Switching Works like cut-through except that it stores the first 64 bytes of the packet before sending it on. The reason for this is that most errors, and all collisions, occur during the initial 64 bytes of a packet.
Still CRC cannot be checked (disadvantage) faster (advantage)
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Layer 3 Switches
Problems With Layer 2 Switches
Broadcast overload because of the single MAC broadcast address (e.g. using ARP for Data Link Layer address resolution) Lack of multiple links - only one path
Normally, the above problems can be solved with several subnets connected by routers. However,
A MAC broadcast frame is then limited to only the devices and switches contained in a single subnet. A router does all IP-level processing, some of which could be not necessary. It is implemented in software and slow.
Layer 3 switches implement the packet-forwarding logic of the router in hardware.

Transparent Bridging & Broadcast storm
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Transparent Bridging
A Technology that allows a switch to learn everything it needs to know about the location of nodes on the network without the network administrator having to do anything. Transparent bridging has five parts:
Learning Flooding Filtering Forwarding Aging
Transparent Bridging
Switch A
Node A
Node C
H U B
Segment-A
HUB
Switch B
Node B
Switch C
Segment-B
Transparent Bridging: Learning

A computer (Node A) on the first segment (Segment A) sends data to a computer (Node B) on another segment (Segment B). The switch gets the first packet of data from Node A. It reads the MAC address and saves it to the lookup table for Segment A. The switch now knows where to find Node A anytime a packet is addressed to it. This process is called learning.
Transparent Bridging: Flooding

Since the switch does not know where Node B is, it sends the packet to all of the segments except the one that it arrived on (Segment A). When a switch sends a packet out to all segments to find a specific node, it is called flooding.
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Transparent Bridging: Forwarding

Node B gets the packet and sends a packet back to Node A in acknowledgement. The packet from Node B arrives at the switch. Now the switch can add the MAC address of Node B to the lookup table for Segment B. Since the switch already knows the address of Node A, it sends the packet directly to it. Because Node A is on a different segment than Node B, the switch must connect the two segments to send the packet. This is known as forwarding.
Transparent Bridging: Filtering

The next packet from Node A to Node B arrives at the switch. The switch now has the address of Node B, too, so it forwards the packet directly to Node B. Node C sends information to the switch for Node A. The switch looks at the MAC address for Node C and adds it to the lookup table for Segment A.
Transparent Bridging: Filtering

The switch already has the address for Node A and determines that both nodes are on the same segment, so it does not need to connect Segment A to another segment for the data to travel from Node C to Node A. Therefore, the switch will ignore packets traveling between nodes on the same segment. This is filtering.
Transparent Bridging: Aging

Learning and flooding continue as the switch adds nodes to the lookup tables. Most switches have plenty of memory in a switch for maintaining the lookup tables; but to optimize the use of this memory, they still remove older information so that the switch doesn't waste time searching through stale addresses. To do this, switches use a technique called aging.
Broadcast Storms
Node B
Switch A
Segment-C
Segment-A
HUB
Switch B
Node A
Switch C
Segment-B
Broadcast Storms
When switches are connected in a loop, a packet from a node could quite possibly come to a switch from two different segments. In this scenario, imagine that Node B is connected to Switch A, and needs to communicate with Node A on Segment B. Switch A does not know who the destination Node A is, so it floods the packet. Packet travels via Segment A or Segment C to the other two switches (B and C).
Broadcast Storms
Switch B will add Node B to the lookup table it maintains for Segment A, while Switch C will add it to the lookup table for Segment C. Each switch will take the packet sent by the other switch and flood it back out again immediately, since they still don't know who the destination Node A is. Switch A will receive the packet from each segment and flood it back out on the other segment. This causes a broadcast storm as the packets are broadcast, received and re-broadcasted by each switch.
Spanning Tree Protocol
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Spanning Tree
Prevents broadcast storms Standardized as the 802.1d specification by IEEE. Spanning Tree uses the spanningtree algorithm (STA) that:
senses that the switch has more than one way to communicate with a node determines which way is best and blocks out the other duplicate path(s)

Each switch is assigned a group of IDs, one for the switch itself and one for each port on the switch. The switch's identifier, called the bridge ID (BID), is 8 bytes long and contains a bridge priority (2 bytes) along with one of the switch's MAC addresses (6 bytes). Each port ID is 16 bits long with two parts: a 6-bit priority setting and a 10-bit port number.

A path cost value is given to each port. The cost is typically based on a guideline established as part of 802.1d. According to the original specification, cost is 1,000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second) divided by the bandwidth of the segment connected to the port. Therefore, a 10 Mbps connection would have a cost of (1,000/10) 100.
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Each switch begins a discovery process to choose which network paths it should use for each segment. This information is shared between all the switches by way of special network frames called bridge protocol data units (BPDU).
The parts of a BPDU are:
Root BID - This is the BID of the current root bridge. Path cost to root bridge - This determines how far away the root bridge is. Sender BID - This is the BID of the switch that sends the BPDU. Port ID - This is the actual port on the switch that the BPDU was sent from.
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All switches constantly send BPDUs to each other. When a switch receives a BPDU (from another switch):
Checks if it is better than the one it is broadcasting for the same segment If yes, then it will stop broadcasting its BPDU out that segment It will store the other switch's BPDU for reference and for broadcasting out to inferior segments, such as those that are farther away from the root bridge

A root bridge is chosen based on the results of the BPDU process between the switches. Initially, every switch considers itself the root bridge. When a switch first powers up on the network, it sends out a BPDU with its own BID as the root BID. When the other switches receive the BPDU, they compare the BID to the one they already have stored as the root BID.

If the new root BID has a lower value, they replace the saved one. If the saved root BID is lower, a BPDU is sent to the new switch with this BID as the root BID. When the new switch receives the BPDU, it realizes that it is not the root bridge and replaces the root BID in its table with the one it just received. The result is that the switch that has the lowest BID is elected by the other switches as the root bridge.

Based on the location of the root bridge, the other switches determine which of their ports has the lowest path cost to the root bridge. These ports are called root ports, and each switch (other than the current root bridge) must have one. The switches determine who will have designated ports.
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A designated port is the connection used to send and receive packets on a specific segment. By having only one designated port per segment, all looping issues are resolved. Once the designated port for a network segment has been chosen, any other ports that connect to that segment become non-designated ports. They block network traffic from taking that path so it can only access that segment through the designated port.
Routers & Gateways
62
Routers
Routers operate at the network layer. Routers connect two or more LANs that use the same or different data link protocols, but the same network protocol. Routers may be black boxes, computers with several NICs, or special network modules in computers. In general they perform more processing on each message than bridges and therefore operate more slowly.
Routers
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Routers
Segments LANs into distinct networks and subnetworks;
e.g. the distinct red, green and blue LANs with distinct network numbers.
Ethernet switch
3rd floor
2nd floor
1st floor
router
Segments LANs into broadcast domains

65
Routers
Provides interface to the WAN.

Intranet, commercial Internet and Internet2 connections.
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Routers vs Bridges
Routers can choose the best route. Routers also only process messages specifically addressed to it. Routers can connect networks using different data link layer protocols. Therefore, routers are able to change data link layer packets. Routers may split a message into several smaller messages for transmission.
Switches vs. Routers

Both store-and-forward devices
routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers) switches are link layer devices
Routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithms Switches maintain switch tables, implement filtering, learning algorithms
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LAN: Switches vs. Repeaters

Repeaters (hubs) are old technology. A repeater sends (repeats) packets that are incoming on one port, out all other ports (I know youre out there somewhere!). Can only operate in half duplex mode. Bandwidth and jitter provided to any single device is highly dependent on the LAN traffic.
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LAN: Switches vs. Repeaters

A switch learns the MAC addresses of the devices connected to it, and sends packets directly and only to the target end-point. Provides much more consistent bandwidth and latency (low jitter). A well-designed switched LAN is important for videoconferencing. Repeater-based LANs should be upgraded to switched for videoconferencing!
Campus LAN example

to external network mail server router web server
switch
IP subnet
hub
hub
hub
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Gateways
Gateways operate at the network layer and use network layer addresses in processing messages. Gateways connect two or more LANs that use the same or different (usually different) data link and network protocols. The may connect the same or different kinds of cable. Gateways process only those messages explicitly addressed to them.
Gateways
Gateways translate one network protocol into another, translate data formats, and open sessions between application programs, thus overcoming both hardware and software incompatibilities. A gateway may be a stand-alone microcomputer with several NICs and special software, a FEP connected to a mainframe computer, or even a special circuit card in the network server.
Gateways
One of the most common uses of gateways is to enable LANs that use TCP/IP and ethernet to communicate with IBM mainframes that use SNA. The gateway provides both the basic system interconnection and the necessary translation between the protocols in both directions.
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Gateways
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Backbone Architecture
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Backbone Architecture Layers
Network designs are made up of three technology layers:

The access layer which is the technology used in LANs The distribution layer connects LANs together The core layer connects different backbone networks together
Backbone network design layers
LAN LAN LAN LAN LAN LAN Distribution Layer
Core Layer
Access Layer
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Routed Backbones
Routed backbones move packets using network layer addresses Each LAN is a separate and isolated network. LANs can use different data link layer protocols. Main advantage:
LAN segmentation.
Main disadvantages:
Routers introduce more delay and require more mgmt. compared to bridging/ switching
Routed Backbones
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Bridged Backbones Forwards the packet based on their data link layer addresses. The entire bridged backbone falls under one subnet. Bridged backbones are cheaper Performance
performs well For small networks for large networks broadcast messages lower performance.
Bridged Backbones
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Collapsed Backbones
Collapsed backbones use a star topology The backbone has fewer devices. Advantages are:
simultaneous access and much higher performance a simpler & more easily managed network.
Disadvantages are:
use more cable if the central switch fails, the network goes down.
Collapsed Backbones
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Rack-based Collapsed Backbones Rack-based backbones collapse the into a single room using
Main Distribution Facility (MDF)
Devices are connected using short patch cables. Moving computers between LANs is relatively simple
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Rack-based Collapsed Backbones
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Chassis-based Collapsed Backbones
Uses a large chassis switch that has slots into which modules can be inserted. Chassis switch designs include a number of open slots and have an internal capacity capable of supporting all active modules.
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Chassis-based Collapsed Backbones
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Ethernet Technology
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Background of Ethernet (First LAN)

Digital, Intel & Xerox (DIX) consortium created original Ethernet 1980 (originally known as Alto Aloha Network) The first network to provide Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Ethernet_II to followed in 1984 (ver-2) IEEE termed this as 802 project
Initially IEEE 802 Project divided into three groups
Initial IEEE 802 Project

High level interface (HILI) became 802.1 committee
Responsible for High level interworking protocols and management
LLC group became 802.2 committee,

for end to end link connectivity between higher layer and media access dependent layers
DL & MAC (DLMAC) group became responsible medium access protocols

DL MAC has been split into three sub committees
DL MAC committees 802.3

802.3 for Ethernet Came of with Ethernet physical layer spec. MAC addressing is same as Ethernet_II but length field replaced type filed Bus topology LAN at 10 Mbps with collision detection (CSMA/CD)
10base 2/ thinnet 185 meters segment without repeater over RG58 coaxial cable at 50 ohms 10base 5/ thicknet 500 meters segment without repeater over RG8/11 coaxial cable at 50 ohms 10base T/UTP cat 3 UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair) to support 10 Mbps
DL MAC committees 802.4/802.5 802.4 for Token Bus Burroughs, concord data systems, Honeywell, western digital, general motors & Boeing took over 802.4 802.5 for Token Ring IBM worked on 802.5
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Ethernet Standards (802.3)

Ethernet (10 Mbps)
Ethernet_II - (DIX- Ethernet) IEEE 802.3 - Ethernet
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

IEEE 802.12 - 100VG AnyLAN IEEE 802.3u - Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps)

IEEE 802.3z - Gigabit Ethernet IEEE 802.ab - Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)

IEEE 802.3ae - 10 Gigabit Ethernet
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Ethernet_II
DIX-Ethernet Layers
Upper Layers Network
Other Layers Network
Media Access Control

(MAC)
Data Link Physical
Ethernet_II
OSI model
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Ethernet Frame Structure

Sending Network Adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble: 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 Used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates
Ethernet Frame Structure

Addresses:matching destination address or broadcast address are passed to network-layer protocol rest discarded Type: indicates the higher layer protocol CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped
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Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm

Adaptor receives datagram from Layer3 & creates frame If adapter senses channel idle, it starts to transmit frame. If it senses channel busy, waits until channel idle and then transmits If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission, the adapter is done with frame !
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Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm

If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal After aborting, adapter enters exponential backoff after mth collision
first collision: choose K from {0,1} i.e.{0, 221}; delay is K x 512 bit transmission times after second collision: choose K from {0,1,2,3}ie. {0,1,..22-1} after ten collisions, choose K from {0,1,2,3,4,,1023}I.e. {0,1,..210-1}
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Ethernet_II- Frame
64~1518B
8B
PREAMBLE
6B
DESTINATION HARDWARE ADDRESS
72~1526B 6B
SOURCE HARDWARE ADDRESS
2B
T Y P E
46~1500B
LAYER 3 DATA
4B
CRC
Eg. Of Type Fields: 0800- IP 0806- ARP 8035- RARP
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Ethernet_II Frame - Details

Preamble: 8 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s to synchronise the receiver Destination Address (DA): 6 bytes (48 bits) unique physical address of destination machine encoded in NIC Source Address (SA): 6 bytes (48 bits) unique physical address of source machine encoded in NIC Type : 2 bytes (16 bits) indicates the type of Layer 3 protocol being used Eg. IP, ARP or RARP (uses RFC 1700 Ethernet Type Values) Layer 3 Data: Between 46-1500 bytes CRC : 4 bytes (32 bits) for error detection information ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 101
MAC Address structure (for all Ethernet)

Destination address : (LS Bit first and MS bit Last in each byte Little-Endian style) I/G Individual / group address: 0 - Individual address. 1 - Group address. U/L Universal /local address: 0 - Universally administered. 1- Locally administered. Source address (LS Bit first and MS bit Last in each byte Little-Endian style) I/G bit is always 0. U/L Universal/local address may be 0/1
LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB
U/L I/G
Most Significant Byte Least Significant Byte
Organisationally Unique Identifier (OUI) (3 bytes)

Vendor Assingned No. (Serial No.) (3 bytes)

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CSMA/CD
Ethernet Uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) as access method Any station wishing to transmit must listen for Carrier on the line If no carrier is detected, the line is idle and transmission can be initiated Two or more stations transmits at the same time, when there was no carrier, results in collision which is indicated by high voltage on the line After collision retry is done at staggered time by different devices CSMA/CD reduces the number of collision but does not eliminate them
Cabling Spec. for UTP Standard

Category Category Category Category 3 4 5 6 (Cat 3)for speed 10 Mbps (Cat 4) for speed 16 Mbps Cat 5) for speed 100 Mbps (Cat 6) for speed 1Gbps
also known as Category 5E
Category 7 Cat 7) for speed 10 Gbps
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IEEE Project 802

IEEE Project 802 sets standard to enable interworking between devices of various vendors.
Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer has been added to achieve the above objective
Other Layers Network Logical Link Control Media Access Control IEEE Project 802
Other Layers Network Data Link Physical OSI model

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Initial IEEE Project 802

IEEE 802.2 LLC deals with logical address, control information and data MAC sub layer resolves contention for shared media
Other Layers
Network
802.2 - Logical Link Control

802.3 CSMA/CD 802.4 Token Bus 802.5 Token Ring ANSI FDDI
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IEEE Project 802

802.3 MAC Frame/802.2 LLC without SNAP
DSAP 1B
SSAP
Control 12 B
1B
802.2 LLC LAYER ENCAPSULATION
DATA 43~1497B
3B S N F HARDWARE D
ADDRESS DESTINATIO
PREAMBLE
LE N GT H
802.2 PDU
CRC
7B
1B
6B
6B
72~1526B
2B
64~1518B
46~1500B
4B
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802.3 MAC Frame

Preamble
7 bytes of alternating 0s and 1s that alert the receiving system and enable it to synchronise its input timing
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)

I byte (10101011) signals the beginning of the frame
Destination Address (DA)

6 bytes (48 bits) unique physical address of destination machine encoded in NIC
Source Address (SA)

6 bytes (48 bits) unique physical address of source machine encoded in NIC
802.3 MAC Frame

Length (2 bytes)
Indicate number of bytes in the frame
802.2 PDU
Upper layer information between 46-1500 bytes
CRC (4 bytes)
for error detection information
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802.2 LLC Header

DSAP:Destination service access point structure I/G - Individual/group address 0 - Individual DSAP. 1 - Group DSAP. SSAP:Source service access point structure C/R - Command/response: 0 - Command. 1 - Response. Control: The structure of the control field is same as HDLC . For IP Network value is (03)
I/G
DSAP
C/R
SSAP
Control
802.2 LLC Header

802.3 MAC Frame/802.2 LLC with SNAP

OUI- Organisationally Unique Identifier SNAP- Sub Network Access Point
OUI 3B
Ether Type 2B SNAP 5B
DSAP 1B
SSAP 1B
Control 12 B
802.2 LLC / SNAP ENCAPSULATION
DATA 38~1492B
8B S N F HARDWARE D
ADDRESS DESTINATIO
PREAMBLE 7B
LE N GT H 2B 64~1518B
802.2 PDU 46~1500B
CRC 4B
1B
6B
6B 72~1526B
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Ethernet Encapsulations Methods
On Ethernet you have four encapsulation formats:

Ethernet version II Novell-specific framing Ethernet 802.3/802.2 without SNAP Ethernet 802.3/802.2 with SNAP Ethernet 802.3/802.2 with SNAP

Ethernet 802.3/802.2 uses the type field to determine the packet protocol. 802.3/802.2 use the DSAP and SSAP fields. Because there are only 256 possible SAP values, they are fairly hard to get. The special SAP number of AA was assigned to indicate that there are further headers after the 802.2 header that must be seen to determine the network-level protocol.

This is the SNAP (Sub Network Access point) header that uses the same type field used by Ethernet_II. IP on an Ethernet can be indicated by Ethernet V2 type 0x0800; 802.2 SAP code 0x06; or a SAP code of 0xAA followed by a SNAP type code of 0x0800. AppleTalk can be indicated by either Ethernet V2 type 0x809B (Phase I), or a SAP code of 0xAA followed by a SNAP type code of 0x809B (Phase II). AppleTalk is currently never sent as an 802.3/802.2 packet with a unique SAP code.

Novell can be found as either Ethernet type 0x8137, or a raw 802.3 packet. It is not sent as an 802.3/802.2 packet with a unique SAP code (0xE0). There are only a few SAP values that you are likely to run across. They are: 04 - IBM SNA 06 - IP 80 - 3Com AA - SNAP BC - Banyan E0 - Novell (TR)
Ethernet (Cabling Spec.)

Three main Cabling specifications are available in Ethernet: 10 Base 5
Uses Thick co-axial Cable
10 Base 2
Uses Thin Coaxial Cable
10 Base T
Uses Unshielded Twisted pair cable
10Base5; Thick Ethernet; Thicknet

The nickname derives from the size of the cable Each station on Ethernet network has its own Network Interface Card (NIC) which provides the station with a unique 6 bytes physical address Each frame is transmitted to every station on the link but will be read only by the station to which it is addressed Transceiver performs the CSMA/CD for checking voltages and collisions on the line
10Base5; Thick Ethernet; Thicknet

R
Segment 1
R
2 6
1 5
2.5 M
50 M
Segment 1
3
500 M; 200 Stations 4 5 Segments; 2500 M; 1000 Stations 1-NIC(Network Interface Card) 3-Cable Terminator 2-RG-8 Thick Coaxial Cable 4-Transceiver Vampire Tap
5-Attachment Unit Interface (AUI);Transceiver Cable (15 Wires)

6-Media Attachment unit (MAU);commonly known as Transceiver
10Base2; Thin Ethernet; Thinnet

Also known as cheapnet or cheapernet Provides same data rate as 10Base5 but with distance limitation of 185 meters and lesser number of work stations Transceiver circuitry has moved into the NIC Transceiver tap has been replaced by a connector that splices the station directly into the cable BNC-T connector is with 3 ports; one for NIC, one each for input and output ends of the cable
10Base2; Thin Ethernet; Thinnet
3 1 4 185 M 1-NIC(Network Interface Card) 3-BNC-T Connector 2-RG-58 Thin Coaxial Cable 4-Cable Terminator 2
120
10BaseT
A star topology LAN All individual transceiver functions and networking operations are placed in an intelligent hub with a port for each station Hub fans out any transmitted frame to all its connected stations Frame will be read by all, but will only be processed by the station to which it is addressed
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseT Each bit has a transition Allows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
10BaseT
1 2 100 M
10Base-T Hub
4 100 M
1-10 Base-T Hub 3-RJ-45 Connector Female
2-RJ-45 Connector Male 4-Network Interface Card
5-RJ-45; Four Pairs UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cable
123
Fast Ethernet Standards

Two standards are approved by IEEE in June 1995 802.12 802.3u
124
Fast Ethernet Standards- 802.12/802.3u

802.12
Uses even efficient signaling techniques than CSMA/CD known as Demand Priority Access Method (DPAM) Also known as 100VG-AnyLAN is similar to the other standard however utilizes a different type of Ethernet frame to send its data. Not popular and eventually disappeared from the market
802.3u
Most popular spec. in 100Mbps over cat 5 UTP or cat 5 plus
Need for Media Independent Interface (MII) Fast Ethernet requires faster interface than 10 Mbps Ethernet 10 Mbps Ethernet uses Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) to connect Ethernet segment MAC is to remain constant for any physical layer technologies AUI cannot support 100 Mbps Ethernet because of high frequencies( AUI Uses 2.5 MHz clock in Ethernet- 10 Mbps) 100 base T needed new interfacemedia Independent Interface (MII)
Media Independent Interface (MII)

100 base T created new Sub interface between physical/data link layer called reconciliation sub layer (RS) RS maps is 1s and 0s to MII. MII transfers one nibble which is 4 bits MII has 25MHz clock and and one nibble (4 bits) are transferred to Physical Layer every clock cycle
127
Fast Ethernet MII/Physical Layers
128
100 Base T (Cabling Spec.)

100Base-T is available in three different types of cable technologies:
100Base-T4 = Utilizes four pairs of telephonegrade twisted-pair wire and is used for networks that need a low quality twisted-pair on a 100-Mbps Ethernet 100Base-TX = Developed by ANSI 100BaseTX is also known as 100Base-X, 100Base-TX uses two wire data grade twisted-pair wire 100Base-FX = Developed by ANSI, 100BaseFX utilizes 2 stands of fiber cable
Fast Ethernet
100 Base-TX
Uses 2 pairs (1 pair towards hub and other pair from hub) of CAT-5 UTP or STP Encoding used is 4B/5B Distance between hub & station be < 100 M
100 Base-FX
Uses 2 optical Fibers (1 fibre towards hub and other fibre from hub) Encoding used is 4B/5B Distance between hub & station be < 2000 M
Fast Ethernet
100 Base-T4
Makes use of already exiting telephone cables Uses 4 pairs of voice grade UTP CAT-3 2 pairs are bi-directional and the other 2 are uni-directional At a time 3 pairs are used to carry data in each direction at a data rate of 33.33 Mbps i.e. 2 pairs carry data bi-directionally Encoding used is 8B/6T (8Binary/6Ternary) Distance between hub & station be < 100 M
Auto Negotiation in Fast Ethernet

Auto negotiatiation uses a priority scheme to decide more preferred option for 100/10 Mbps Ethernet Lower the functioning value more the preferred one Auto negotiatiation uses fast link pulses (FLPs) for negotiatiation Lowest functioning option is chosen Auto negotiation may fail sometimes Important connection are configured manually
Auto Negotiation Priorities

Standard
100 base T2 100 base T2 100 base Tx 100 base Tx 100 base T4 10 base T 10 base T
full/half
full half full half half full half
Auto negotiation priority 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

133
10BaseT and 100BaseT

10/100 Mbps rate; latter called fast ethernet T stands for Twisted Pair Nodes connect to a hub: star topology; 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
134
Gigabit Eth MAC/Phy Layer

1000 base T created new Sub interface between physical/data link layer known as GMII ( Gigabit Media Independent Interface). GMII transfers one byte (8 bits) at a time to physical layer GMII has 125MHz clock and and one byte (8 bits) is transferred to Physical Layer every clock cycle
Gigabit Ethernet MAC/Phy Layer
136
Gigabit Ethernet
4 implements have been designed:
1000 1000 1000 1000
FEATURE
MEDIUM SIGNAL
Base-LX Base-SX Base-CX Base-T

1000Base-SX
Optical Fiber (Multi mode) Short-Wave Laser 1000BaseCX STP Electrical 1000Bas e-T UTP Electrical
1000Base-LX
Optical Fiber (Multi mode; Single mode) Long-Wave Laser
MAXIMU 550 Meters M Multi mode; 550 Meters DISTAN 5000 Meters ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 CE Single mode
25M
25M
137
Ethernet Cabling Spec for UTP
138
IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
Combines physical configuration of Ethernet (a bus topology) and the collision free feature of Token Ring Token bus is a physical bus that operates as logical ring using tokens (Round Robin)
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)

Each transmits only one frame during its turn Access method is token passing Station keeps the token and sends the frame in the ring Each station in the ring regenerates the frame The intended recipient copies the frame and send the frame back to sender The sender receives the frame back, discards the frame and releases the token for others
Ring Topology & Token Ring Hub
141
Token Ring Media Access Control

Token ring uses a controlled-access technique called token passing. The token is a series of bits, travels between the computers in a predetermined sequence. A computer with a message waits to transmit until it receives a free token. The computer changes the free token to a busy token and attaches its message to it. Then it retransmits it on the circuit to the next computer in the sequence. The computer receiving the message, changes the acknowledgement to ACK (or NAK) and sends the message back to the sender, who creates a new free token.
142
143
144
Token loss: The token crashes before being transmitted - lost a free token A computer in the ring crashes - lost a busy token A token is always busy. A solution for the lost token problem: Designate one computer to be the token monitor and another computer to be a backup token monitor. If no token circulated through the network for a certain length of time or if a busy token circulates too often, the token monitor will create a new free token (and destroy the busy token if necessary.)
IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring)
146
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface, standardised by ANSI and the ITU-T High speed alternative to Ethernet and Token Ring Copper version of FDDI is known as CDDI Uses Token passing as access method Implemented in dual ring In most cases, data transmission is confined to the primary ring The secondary ring is provided in case the primary ring fails
MAC Address structure- Token Ring/FDDI

Destination address (LS Bit first and MS bit Lastin each byte Big-Endian style) I/G Individual / group address 0 - Individual address. 1 - Group address. U/L Universal /local address 0 - Universally administered. 1- Locally administered. Source address (LS Bit first and MS bit Last in each byte - BigEndian style) I/G bit is always 0. U/L Universal/local address may be 0/1
MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB MSB LSB
I/G U/L
Most Significant Byte Least Significant Byte
Organisationally Unique Identifier (OUI) (3 bytes)

Vendor Assingned No. (Serial No.) (3 bytes)

148
FDDI-Self Healing Ring
Secondary Ring
Primary Ring
Fault
149
Fiber Distributed Data Interface

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a set of standards originally designed in the late 1980s, but has since made its way into backbone networks. FDDI is a token-passing ring network that operates at 100 Mbps over twocounter-rotating fiber optic cable rings.
150
Topology
The FDDI standard assumes a maximum of 1000 stations and a 200-kilometers (120 miles) path that requires a repeater every 2kilometers. The second ring is for backup. Single attachment stations (SAS) and dualattachment stations (DAS) are both computer that can connect to one or both of the rings, respectively. If the cable in the FDDI ring is broken, the ring can still operate in a limited fashion.
151
Topology
152
Topology
153
Media Access Control

The FDDI-MAC scheme uses a variation of the IEEE 802.5 token-passing standard.
Messages and the token are sent in different frames separately in a FDDI LAN. A computer can send data only when it captures the token. When a computer on an FDDI network waiting for transmission receives the token, it holds the token and then transmits all messages that were attached to it. The computer then transmits whatever messages its wants before transmitting the token. When receiver receives the data frame it simply copy the data frame leaving it to be absorbed by the sender.
154
Fiber Distributed Data Interface

FDDI (standardized as ANSI X3T9.5) backbone protocol was developed in the 1980s and popular during the 80s and 90s. FDDI operates at 100 Mbps over a fiber optic cable. Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI) is a related protocol using cat 5 twisted wire pairs. FDDIs future looks limited, as it is now losing market share to Gigabit Ethernet and ATM.
FDDI Topology (Figure 7-15)

FDDI uses both a physical and logical ring topology capable of attaching a maximum of 1000 stations over a maximum path of 200 km. A repeater is need every 2 km. FDDI uses dual counter-rotating rings (called the primary and secondary). Data normally travels on the primary ring. Stations can be attached to the primary ring as single attachment stations (SAS) or both rings as dual attachment stations (DAS).
Figure 7-15 FDDI Topology
157
FDDIs Self Healing Rings

One important feature of FDDI is its ability to handle a break in the ring to form a temporary ring out of the pieces of the two rings. Figure 7-16, show an example of a cable break between two dualattachment stations. After the cable break is detected, a single ring is formed out of the primary and secondary rings until the cable break can be repaired.
Figure 7-16 FDDIs Self-healing Rings
159
160
Gigabit Ethernet
Still under development Retains CSMA/CD protocol and Ethernet format, ensuring smooth upgrade path Uses optical fiber over short distances 1-Gbps switching hub provides backbone connectivity May not be good for LAN (explain why) and has been used in backbone networks for point-to-point connections.
Gigabit Ethernet
1000BASE-LX: Long-wavelength, supports up to 550m (m-mode fiber) or 5km (single-mode fiber) 1000BASE-SX: Short-wavelength, supports up to 275 - 550 m(m-mode fiber) 1000BASE-CX: uses copper jumpers in a single room or equipment rack 1000BASE-T: uses 4 pairs of Cat-5 UTP
Gigabit Ethernet Media Options
163
Fast Ethernet Backbone
164
Fibre Channel
combine the best features of channel and protocol-based technologies
the simplicity and speed of channel communications the flexibility and inter-connectivity that characterize protocol-based network communications.
more like a traditional circuit-switched or packet-switched network, in contrast to the typical shared-medium LAN
Fiber Channel Network
N_port
F_port
166
Fibre Channel Elements

Nodes
The end systems Includes one or more N_ ports for interconnection
Fabric
Collection of switching elements between systems Each element includes multiple F_ ports Responsible for buffering and for routing frames between source and destination nodes
Fibre Channel Goals

Full-duplex links with two fibers per link Performance from 100 Mbps to 800 Mbps on a single link (200 Mbps to1600 Mbps per link) Support for distances up to 10 km Small connectors High-capacity utilization with distance insensitivity Greater connectivity than existing multidrop channels Broad availability (i.e., standard components) Support for multiple cost/performance levels, from small systems to supercomputers Ability to carry multiple existing interface command sets for existing channel and network protocols
168
*Fibre Channel Protocol Architecture

FC-0 Physical Media: Includes optical fiber, coaxial cable, and shielded twisted pair, based on distance requirements FC-1 Transmission Protocol: Defines the signal encoding scheme FC-2 Framing Protocol: Defines topologies, frame format, flow/error control, and grouping of frames FC-3 Common Services: Includes multicasting FC-4 Mapping: Defines the mapping of various channel and network protocols to Fibre Channel
Fibre Channel - Maximum Distance
800Mbps Single Mode
400Mbps
200Mbps
100Mbps
10,000m
10,000m
10,000m
10,000m
M-mode
Coaxial Cable
500m
1,000m
2,000m
--
50m
71m
100m
100m
STP
28m
46m
57m
80m
170
Present IEEE 802 Project Working Groups

802.1 Higher Layer LAN Protocols Working Group 802.2 Logical Link Control Working Group 802.3 Ethernet Working Group 802.4 Token Bus Working Group 802.5 Token Ring Working Group 802.6 Metropolitan Area Network Working Group 802.7 Broadband TAG 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG 802.9 Isochronous LAN Working Group 802.10 Security Working Group 802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group 802.12 Demand Priority Working Group 802.14 Cable Modem Working Group 802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Working Group 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access Working Group 802.17 Resilient Packet Ring Working Group
171
Virtual LAN (VLAN)

Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) are a collection of nodes that are grouped together in a single broadcast domain that is based on something other than physical location. A broadcast domain is a network (or portion of a network) that will receive a broadcast packet from any node located within that network. In a typical network, everything on the same side of the router is all part of the same broadcast domain. A switch, with the implemented VLANs on, has multiple broadcast domains, similar to a 172 ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 router.
Virtual LAN (VLAN)

VLANs can be created simply by logging into the switch via TELNET and then entering the parameters for the VLAN (name, domain and port assignments). Once the VLAN is created, any network segments connected to the assigned ports will become part of that VLAN. While you can have more than one VLAN on a switch, they cannot communicate directly with one another on that switch. Communication between VLANs requires the use of a router. VLANs can span multiple switches, and you ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004 173
VLAN Trunking Protocol

VLAN trunking protocol (VTP) is the protocol that switches use to communicate among themselves about VLAN configuration
174
VLAN Trunking Protocol

In the example: Each switch has two VLANs. On the first switch, VLAN A and VLAN B are sent through a single port (trunked) to the router and through another port to the second switch. VLAN C and VLAN D are trunked from the second switch to the first switch, and through the first switch to the router. This trunk can carry traffic from all four VLANs. The trunk link from the first switch to the router can also carry all four VLANs. In that case, this one connection to the router allows the router to appear on all four VLANs ALTTC/ VLANs can communicate with each other 175 The DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

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K. Suresh Sub Divisional Engineer(DX) Telephones: +91-120-2728412(O) +91-120-2728434(O) +91-120-2728839(R) E-mail: k_suresh@bsnl.

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Inter working Devices

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Network Topologies (Mesh & Star)

Network Topologies (Tree & Bus)

Network Topologies (Ring & Hybrid)

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Hub Bridges LAN Switches Routers Gateways

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Hub/Switch uses Star topology

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Interconnecting with hubs

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Switch: Self learning

Switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Suppose C sends frame to D Switch receives frame from from C

Suppose D replies back with frame to C. Switch receives frame from D

Switch: traffic isolation

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Switches: dedicated access

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Ethernet Hubs and Switches

Switched LAN hubs

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Routes the packet using one of the following methods:

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Layer 3 switches implement the packet-forwarding logic of the router in hardware.

Transparent Bridging & Broadcast storm

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Transparent Bridging: Learning

Transparent Bridging: Flooding

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Transparent Bridging: Forwarding

Transparent Bridging: Filtering

Transparent Bridging: Filtering

Transparent Bridging: Aging

Spanning Tree Protocol

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Spanning Tree Protocol

Spanning Tree Protocol

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Spanning Tree Protocol

ALTTC/ DX Faculty/ KSK/ LAN Technology/ Nov 2004

Spanning Tree Protocol

Spanning Tree Protocol

Spanning Tree Protocol