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TOPIC - 11
Stress
Significant deviation from optimum conditions of life Stress is the altered physiological condition caused by factors that ultimately affects growth and development. Stress causes changes at all functional levels of the organism Cellular Physiological Morphological
STRESS
2 TYPES
ABIOTIC BIOTIC
Tolerance
ability to sustain plant function in presence of the stress
Acclimatization
is the process of adjusting to changes in its environment, often involving temperature or climate. Occurs during the life of an organism and not heritable.
Maple trees, irises, and tomatoes, can survive freezing temperatures if the temperature gradually drops lower and lower each night over a period of days or weeks.
The plants might be killed if the temperature drop occurred suddenly.
Adaptation
is generally a slow process caused by natural selection
occurs over many generations (can be inherited or heritable) change in structure and function
Structural adaptations are special body parts of an organism that help it to survive in its natural habitat
modification of leaves into spines, succulent leaves in desert plants
Oxidative stress is the stress due to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS
Produced during the reduction of molecular oxygen Molecules like superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicle. Produced during Normal Metabolism ETC of Photosynthesis and Respiration - Accumulate under Environmental Stress Conditions high light intensity, low temperature, drought, salinity, UV light and Ozone.
ROS
at low levels function in cell signaling process at higher levels cause cellular damage and programmed cell death.
Hydrogen peroxide
Antioxidants commonly found in plants Vitamin A (carotenoids) carrot, tomato, squash, Papaya, sweet potato, Kiwi Vitamin C - citrus fruits like oranges, lemon, green vegetables, strawberries, blueberries, green pepper
WATER stress
- Most prevalent environmental stress and could be due to lack of available water ( drought or freezing conditions)
-can be found in two forms: -Surface water, or water below the surface called subsurface or ground water. Surface water includes streams, lakes, ponds and puddles produced by heavy rains during rainy seasons. Ground Water : Oasis
What happens to plants during drought stress? Formation of (Reactive Oxygen Species) ROS Changes in solute concentration Loss of turgor pressure Membrane damage Decrease in Photosynthesis Poor growth and yield Plants die (Worst conditions) Plants strategy or response to survive the drought stress is to - prevent biochemical changes - limit water loss through transpiration
Structural changes
Loss of leaves under dry conditions Salvia mellifera : loses 90% of leaves under stress, the retained leaves are smaller and rotated so that the white underside is exposed. Surface area is reduced by leaf folding in grasses (Kentucky bluegrass) Specialized trichomes in leaves to obtain water from mist. Tillandsia Sp. epiphytes and have no roots, grow in regions that have no rainfall but have dense fog. Rapid life cycle during water availability Common in annual plants and complete life cycle during periods of high rainfall Have shallow root system and tap surface moisture only Seed germination to seed set is just few weeks Many of these plants produce only two leaves before flowering
Physiological adaptations
Production of ABA (first step in plants response to stress) Production of osmolytes like proline, trehalose, mannitol, glycinebetaine that help in maintaining the osmostic potential. Stabilizing proteins (LEA, HSP) Antioxidants protect against oxidative damage Antioxidant enzymes that prevent ROS accumulation CAM type of photosynthesis
Xerophyta viscosa
Resurrection plant Africa Asthma, nose bleeds, general aches, anti-inflammatory.
Drought tolerant crop Able to survive long periods without water survive high temperatures, high winds Resumes full metabolic functions within 24 to 72 hours
Two of the most popular desert plants Ocotillo- which is a leafy green plant that produces flowers. Saguaro cactus -named as Arizona's state flower. 75 years to develop a side arm. night blooming white and yellow flowers appear April through June and the sweet, ruby-colored fruit matures by late June. fruit contains several thousand tiny seeds.
Only cross-pollination, pollinated by bats at night and Doves and bees at daytime . Bat pollination: nocturnal opening of the flowers, nocturnal maturation of pollen, very rich nectar, position high above the ground, durable blooms that can withstand a bat's weight, and fragrance emitted at night.
Pollination by bees: Remain open into the daylight hours and continue to produce nectar after sunrise
Ocotillo
- is deciduous, drought tolerant shrub and most conspicuous Arizona plants. - stems can be from 9 to 30 feet tall and grow in an "S" like pattern. - Stems covered with a thick water resistant cuticle - stems are covered with spines that can be 1.5 inches long. - leaves of thick and leather like - leaves turn brown and fall off when water is scarce. - can sprout within 3 day of a rainfall. Hence, grow several times in the growing season depending on the amount of rainwater available. - has a shallow, but wide root system, which it uses to gather rainwater
The plant is easily grown from seed and cuttings and sold as nursery stock. Pollinated by humming birds Nectar is the major food source for hummingbirds during their northward migration.
In Monsoon
Mechanism of tolerance
Have breathing roots Pneumatophores
Aerenchyma tissues (help in long distance transport of oxygen) in the roots, leaves and stem. Rhizome of wetland species remain dormant during the winter months accumulate SOD which prevents ROS damage during regrowth Rapid shoot expansion in response to slight oxygen stress and this is induced by ethylene. Adventitious roots are formed that replace roots damaged by stress. Mangroves (Avicennia spp) growing in permanently flooded conditions, develop Pneumatophores.
MANGROVE
As the mud of mangroves has a very low oxygen content, Avicennia marina has roots that grow vertically from the ground called Pneumatophores to obtain oxygen. Pneumatophores have loosely packed tissues (aerenchyma) to allow effective diffusion of gases into the pith.
COLD STRESS - LOW TEMPERATURE Chilling - Temperature > 0-12oC Freezing Temperature < 0oC Chilling Injury when tropical plants/fruits are exposed to nonfreezing temperature
FREEZING STRESS
Efffects of low temperature
Intracellular versus extracellular ice
Intracellular ice is lethal Plasma membrane is a barrier to ice growth Water transport and cell osmotic conditions are affected
HEAT STRESS
Inactivation of enzymes Rubisco, Inactivation of proteins Reduction in photosynthesis Photorespiration Heat tolerance mechanism Reduce energy absorption or overheating of leaves decrease leaf size change angle of leaves (tortifoliation, wilting) reflect light presence of trichomes on leaves leaf drop Production of heat shock proteins (HSP) prevent the denaturing of proteins
small leaves
leaf die back and drop due to drought and heat stress leaf hairs - reflect light and collect dew
Heat Stress
White Sage of the Coastal Sage Scrub plant community. Light colored leaves reflect incoming sunlight, thereby reducing the plant's heat uptake.
Black Sage of the Coastal Sage Scrub plant community. A thick waxy coating on the leaves helps reduce water loss in this arid environment.
SALT STRESS High concentrations of salt in soil Due to land clearance, poor irrigation, lack of drainage, extensive use of chemical fertilizers Signaled by ABA pathway
Halophytes: Plant species that grow on saline soils and tolerate relatively high soil salinities (accumulate high Na or Cl ions in their tissues)
Effect of SALT STRESS Leads to low water availability (osmotic stress) and ionic stress. Reduction in leaf size and root growth Altered flowering and reduced seed production Oxidative stress Mechanism of salt tolerance Sequestering Na+ ions in their vacuoles. - Most plants require potassium for plant growth and do not require sodium, hence high levels of K+ is maintained in the cell. - When salt concentrations are high in soil, both ions compete to enter the cell. - High Na+: K+ ratios are toxic and reduce plant
Mechanism of salt tolerance Accumulation of osmolytes to provide osmotic balance and protect the cell.
Salt
secreting trichomes called salt glands, common among mangrove plant. Seed germination in halophytes is restricted to periods of minimum salinity in the soil (high rainfall).
difficulty of germination in saline conditions is overcome by vivipary, the new plants encounter the saline soils as seedlings and not as seeds. Change C3 photosynthetic pathway to CAM pathway under salt stress.
E.g., Mesembryanthemum (ice plant), stomato opens during day in low salinity condition and stomata open during night under high salinity (on the same leaf surface)