Biochemistry Of Carbohydrates

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CHARBOHYDRATES
Definition:-Carbohydrates may be defined as polyhyroxyaldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. Functions Of Carbohydrates :1. They are the most abundunt dietry source of energy for all organisms. 2. Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compounds.

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1.

2.

3.

Carbohydrates participate in the structure of cell membrane and cellular function such as cell growth , adhesion and fertilization. They are structure components of many organisms . These include the fiber of plants . exoskeleton of some insects and the cell wall of microorganisms. Carbohydrates also serve as the storage form of energy to meet the immediate enery demands of the body.

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CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
are also referred as saccharides Carbohydrates are broadly devided into three major groups1. Monosaccharides 2. Oligosaccharides 3. Polysaccharides Mono- & Oligo-saccharidse are sweet to taste & they are commonly known as sugar.
Carbohydrates

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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides:Monosaccharides are the simplest group of carbohydrates & are often referred to as simple sugars. They have the general formula Cn(H2O)n & they cannot be further hydrolysed. Aldoses :-When a functional group in monosaccharides is an aldehyde they are known as aldoses e.g. glyceraldehyde , glucose.

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Continue.
the functional groups keto group , they are referred to as ketoses e.g. dihydroxyacetone, fructose. Based on the number of carbon atoms the monosaccharides are regarded as trioses (3C), Tetroses(4C), Pentoses(5C), Hexoses(6C), etc.These terms along with functional groups are used while naming monosaccharides.
Ketoses:-When

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CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES

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Types Continue..
contain 2-3 monosaccharide molecules which are liberated on hydrolysis. Polysaccharides:- Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide units with high molecular weight . They are usually tasteless. The polysaccharides are of two types:1. Homopolysaccharides 2. Hetropolysaccahrides
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Oligosaccharides:-It

Monosaccharide Structural Aspects

Stereoisomerism:-

It is an important character of monosaccharides . These are the compounds that have the same structural formula but differ in their spatial configuration. A carbon is said to be asymmetric when it is attached to four different atoms or group

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Disaccharides
A

1. 2.

disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units held together by a glycosidic bond. They are crystalline , watersoluble & sweet to taste. The disaccharides are of two types:Reducing disaccharides with free aldehyde or keto- group e.g. maltose, lactose. Non-reducing disaccharides with no free aldehyde or keto group e.g. sucrose, trehalose.
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Disaccharides
is composed of two -Dglucose units held together by (14) glycosidic bond . Maltose liberates two -Dglucose on hydrolysis. Sucrose:-Sugar , produces from sugar cane & sugar beets. It is made up of -D-glucose & -D-fructose .The two monosaccharides are held together by glycosidic bond.It is a nonreducing sugar.
Maltose:-Maltose

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Disaccharides
Lactose:-

Lactose is more commonly known as milk sugar since it is the disaccharides found in milk .Lactose is composed of -DGlucose & -D-glucose held together by (14) glycosidic bond . It has reducing property Lactose is the most important carbohydrate in the most important carbohydrate in the nutrition of young mammals . It is hydrolysed by the intestinal enzyme lactase to glucose & galactose .

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ISOMERS
Glyceraldehyde

is the simplest monosaccharide with 1 asymmetric carbon atom.It exist as two sterioisomers & has been chosen as the reference carbohydrates. The D & L isomers are mirror images of each other.The spatial orientation of H & -OH groups on the carban . If the OH group is on right side ,the sugar is of D-series, and if on left side the sugar is of L series.

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OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF SUGAR

Optical

activity :-is characterstic feature of compounds with asymmetric carbon atom . When a beam of polarized light is passed through a solution of an optical isomers,it will be rotated either to the right or left . The term dextrarotatory (+) and levorotatory() are used to define them. Mutarotation :- It is defined as a change in specific rotation of optically active solution without any change in other property.

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 Epimers:-

If two monosaccharides differs from each other in their configuration around a single specific carbon atom , they are referred to as epimers to each other.

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Reactions Of Monosaccharides
Tautomerization:-The

process of shifting a hydrogen atom from one carbon atom to another to produce enediols is known as tautomerization . Enediol is the intermediate after this reaction. Reducing Property:- The sugar are classified as reducing or non reducing . The reducing property is attributed to the free aldehyde or keto group of anomeric carbon.

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Reactions Cont.
on the oxidising agent used, the terminal aldehyde or the terminal alcohol or both the groups may be oxidized. Reduction:-The monosaccharides may be reduced to corresponding alcohols by reducing agents like sodium amalgam. Eg. GlucoseSorbitol , GalactoseDucitol, MannoseMannitol.
Oxidation:-Depending

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Reactions
Dehydration:-When

treated with concentrated sulfuric acid monosaccharides undergo dehydration with an elimination of 3 water molecules. Osazone Formation:- Reducing sugars can be distinguished from one another by phenylhydrazine test when characteristic osazones are formed.

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GlYCOSIDES
The anomeric hydroxyl and a hydroxyl of another sugar or some other compound can join together, splitting out water to form a glycosidic bond: R-OH + HO-R' R-O-R' + H2O E.g., Methyl alcohol,phenol,glycerol. The bond so formed is known as glycosidic bond & the noncarbohydrate is aglycone. Derivatives Of Monosaccharides:1. Sugar acids 2. Sugar alcohols 3. Alditols 4. Amino sugars 5. Deoxysugars 6. L-ascorbic acid
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