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Industrial Instrumentation

Miscellaneous Instruments,

humidity, pH, environment composition measuring instruments, etc.

Instrumentation for Distillation columns, Heat exchangers, etc.

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Miscellaneous Measurement Devices

Humidity & Moisture Measurement, Measurement, Pollution Measurement,

pH

Environmental

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Very

important process variable in:

paper, textiles, tobacco, soap powders, fertilizers, paint, lacquers, leather, celluloid, artificial resins, glues, films, wood products and etc. industries, and and air-conditioning systems.

heating Humidity

is the amount of water vapour content in the atmosphere.

Generally

expressed in terms of absolute humidity or relative humidity.

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Absolute

humidity:

Relative

Humidity (RH):

for for

dry air, RH = 0.0% and saturated air, RH = 100%

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Measurement

techniques

Psychrometer, Dew-point Hair

technique,

hygrometer, and hygrometer.

Humistor

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Psychrometer

Device

contains two thermometer

The

temperature sensing on one measures the environmental temperature (dry air temperature) and around of the bulb of other is a wick from which water is evaporated to produce cooling which indicates the wet bulb temperature.

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Dew-Point Technique
The

temperature of a polished metal surface is reduced (by evaporation of a volatile liquid) until there is a visible condensation of water vapour.
This

temperature of condensation is called dew point.

There

is a relation between the dew point, environment temperature and relative humidity (RH). chart are used to read wet and dry bulb temperature, dew point and %RH, grams of moisture per cubic meter of air, etc. at specified atmospheric pressure.

Psychrometric

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Online Technique Hair Hygrometer

Certain materials (like human hair, animal membranes, wood, paper, etc) undergo changes in linear dimensions when they absorb moisture from atmosphere.

Human hair becomes longer as the humidity of surrounding air increases, and shortens when the air becomes drier.

This property of human hair can be used to operate a pointer and recording pen through a system of mechanical linkage.

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Online Technique Hair Hygrometer

The transducer element consists of strands of hair to give it increased mechanical strength, The hair strands are generally arranged as parallel to each other with sufficient space between them for giving free access to the air sample under test. For better functioning the element is maintained under light tension by a spring.

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Online Technique Hair Hygrometer
The It

instrument is cheap.

is not a precise instrument.

Calibration

is needed to be checked periodically (using wet and dew bulb hygrometer). for a temperature range of 535 0C and in the relative humidity range of 4095%. accuracy of the device is within 34 %.

Operated

The

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Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Online Technique Humistor Hygrometer
Humsitor The

= Humidity sensitive resistor

electrical resistance of such resistor vary reproducibly with the changes RH of the surrounding air and therefore these are conveniently used as sensing elements for humidity measurement. humistor consists of two metal grids bonded to a sheet of plastic. This arrangement is given a coating of moisturesensitive (i.e. hygrosopic salts such as lithium chloride) material.
other

The

salts are barium fluoride, potassium hydrogen phosphate or aluminum oxide.

Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Online Technique Humistor Hygrometer
A

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single transducer generally can cover only as small range of the order of 11%. a large, of the order of 5 99%, of RH is required then a combination of seven or eight transducer elements are used, each designed for a specific part of the total range. humistor is an electrical sensor, it meets the industrial range of speed, versatility, accuracy and high sensitivity. devices can measure fraction of 1% change in RH. the relationship between

When

As

These

However,

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pH Measurement
Required

to control the acidity and alkalinity in chemical, medical, bacteriological processes and etc. degree of acidity and alkalinity is measure using a pH scale. the pH value is based on the actual measurement of the hydrogen concentration in g/l of the solution. example the hydrogen ion concentration for pure water (which is neutral solution at 25 0C) is 1 x 10-7 g/l. avoid handling such small numbers, the pH

The

Principle:

For

To

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pH Measurement
As

the pH value decreases from 7.0 to 0.0 acid solutions increase in strength. solutions increases in strength as the pH value increases in value above 7.0. 14. practical range of pH scale is between 0 and

Alkaline

The

pH of 0.0 corresponds to an acid solution of unit strength, and pH of 14 corresponds to a basic solution of unit strength

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pH Measurement
pH Meter
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5% Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, battery acid. 0.1 N HCl, hydrochloric acid (1.1) Lemon juice. Vinegar (2.4-3.4) wine (3.5-3.7) Orange juice. Apple juice (3.8). Beer. Tomatoes. Cottage cheese. Black coffee. Rain water 5.6. Milk. Fish (6.7-7). chicken (6.4-6.6). Neutral: equal numbers of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Blood (7.1-7.4). Distilled water without CO2, after boiling. Sea water (8.1). Egg white. Borax. baking soda. Milk of magnesia Household ammonia Photographic developer Oven cleaner Sodium lye NaOH, 1 mol/litre.

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pH Measurement
pH Meter
Glass

electrode, electrode, electrode, and electrode.

Hydrogen

Quinhydrone Antimony

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pH Measurement
pH Meter Glass Electrode

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pH Measurement
pH Meter Glass Electrode

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pH Measurement
pH Meter Glass Electrode
A

glass electrode and calomel cell electrode is connected to the sample solution whose pH to be determined. glass electrode acts as a measuring electrode because the thin glass membrane allows the passage of hydrogen ions in the form of H3O+. the glass bulb is highly acidic buffer solution. electrode which forms an electrolytic half cell operates on the principle that an electrolytic potential is observed between two solutions of different ion

The

Inside

This

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pH Measurement
pH Meter Glass Electrode
Another

half cell known as calomel (mercury and mercurous chloride) pH reference cell consists of a glass bulb filled with a saturated solution of potassium chloride in contact with the measured solution through the salt bridge tube through a porous asbestos fiber plug. algebraic sum of the potential of the two half cells is proportional to the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. voltage produced by the two electrodes is applied at the input of a measuring instrument such as the null-balance millivolt potentiometer.

The

The

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pH Measurement
pH Meter Glass Electrode

A glass electrode is quite adequate for pH measurement upto 9.0. For pH values more than 9.0 a negative static charge error is produced due to sodium or potassium ions present in the alkaline solutions. These electrodes can operate in the range 0100 0C at a pressure from 1 to 10 atm. These electrodes are not affected by oxidation-reduction potentials. The accuracy of these electrode

pH Measurement

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pH Meter Glass Electrode

The

hydrogen electrode is a laboratory standard but is prone to contamination and requires a continuous supply of pure hydrogen. quinhydrone electrode is limited in usefulness because it is suitable for a small range. electrode has the same advantage but solutions containing copper, silver, mercury or lead ions poison the electrode resulting in serious error.

The

Antimony

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Industrial Instrumentation

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement

Addition

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of any material to the environment which harms our daily lives, like: CO, CO2, SO2, H2S, oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO2, NO), ozone, hydrocarbons, solvent vapor and etc. pollutant are mainly caused by the exhaust emissions of various process industries, automobile vehicles, domestic heating, forest and agriculture fires, etc. quantities of pollutants in the air can be expressed in mass units, i.e. g/m3, or ppm.

These

The

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement

Measuring Orsat Gas

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techniques:

Apparatus for Exhaust Gas Analysis,

Chromatography,

Non-dispersive Gas

Infrared and Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysis, and Density Analysis

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Orsat Apparatus

Used

in boiler flue gases or power generating combustion type engines for air pollution studies. to analyze CO2, O2, CO and N2. sample of product of the combustion is taken into the measuring burette using a hand-operated or hydraulic aspirator or a small electric pump. sampling inlet valve is shut-off and the sample is forced into the first reagent pipette containing caustic potash (KOH) solution to absorb only CO2.

Used A

The

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Orsat Apparatus

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Orsat Apparatus

This

procedure is repeated with the other two reagent pipette containing pyrogallic acid and cuprous chloride solutions for the absorption of O2 and CO, respectively. the proportion of N2 is determined by difference. the volumetric analysis the dry molecular weight of the sampled gas can be determined as follows:

Finally

From

MD = 0.44 (% of CO2) + 0.28 (% of CO) + 0.32 (% of O2) + 0.28 (% of N2)

where MD = dry molecular weight of the sampled gas

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Gas Chromatography

Best

method for continuous sampling simulations of the products of combustion and other gas samples as well. of four basic components: sample introduction unit, the fractionating column, a detector and a recording device. fractionating column is usually considered as the heart of the system. is made of copper or stainless steel tube 0.25 50 mm in diameter and 1 20 m in length. column is usually packed with a fine mesh

Comprised

The

It

The

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Gas Chromatography

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Gas Chromatography

The

gas sample for analysis in a GC is usually kept small. collected in a small glass syringe and introduced into the chromatographic column so that its various components are selectively adsorbed the suitable solid/liquid adsorbents. this a carrier inert gas, usually ultra-pure nitrogen or helium, fed at constant flow rate transports the sample through the column to the detector. components of the sample gas are retained in the column for different lengths of time so that the detector senses

Typically

After

Different

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Gas Chromatography

The

device usually is calibrated for the retention times of various components present in the sampled gas. devices are equipped with suitable closely controlled heating or cooling systems to achieve proper separation times for different components. used in the gas chromatograph are of several types.
differential hydrogen argon

Chromatographic

Detectors

thermal conductivity cells,

flame ionisation detectors,

ionisation detectors, etc.

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Gas Chromatography

Differential Mostly

thermal conductivity cells

used as they are simple in construction, relatively inexpensive, sensitive and stable. of two cells of either matched resistance wires or thermistors arranged in the Wheatstone bridge circuit. principle of thermal conductivity detectors depends on the cooling effect when a constituent of the sampled gas is present in the carrier gas than when the carrier gas plus the constituents in it. passing pure carrier gas through one cell and the carrier gas plus the constituents in the other cell, a differential signal proportional to the amount/ concentration of the constituent is generated.

Comprised

The

By

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Gas Chromatography

The

output of detector is processed electronically and displayed on a chart recorder. display indicates the concentration curve or peak of each component of the mixture. qualitative identification of a particular component is made by the retention time which is the time elapsed from injection of the sample to detection. quantitative or concentration measurement is based on the height of the peak. units are available for 100 or more constituents in the mixtures with minimum

The

The

The

Chromatographic

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Non-dispersive Infrared & Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysers
Non-dispersive

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Infrared gas analyser (Infrared absorption spectrometer) to determine the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the test gas samples. principle of operation is based on the absorption of IR radiations in narrow wavelength bands, with each gas exhibiting its own peculiar characteristics.
e.g.

Used

The

each hydrocarbon has a characteristic absorption spectrum, therefore the graph wavelength versus percentage absorption (transmission) enables the hydrocarbon to be identified.

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Non-dispersive Infrared & Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysers

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Non-dispersive Infrared & Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysers
The

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fundamental law which governs the relationship between the various variables is known as Beers law and is as follows: C = (1/(ax)).log (I0/Ix)

where C = concentration of substance, a = absorption factor of substance, x = thickness of sample (along the optical path), I0 = intensity of beam before sample, and Ix = intensity of beam after sample
In

operation different types of filters are placed in the path of infrared rays so that only the

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Non-dispersive Infrared & Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysers
These

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are than passed through the reference cell containing an inert gas (usually nitrogen) as well as the sample cell which admits the passage of sample gas containing the pollutants under investigation. IR absorption takes place in the reference cell, while the absorption in the sample cell is proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume (concentration) of the component of interest. transmitted IR radiation of the reference and sample cells are detected by two total radiation pyrometer containing either

No

The

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Non-dispersive Infrared & Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysers
The

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absorption of IR radiations causes the temperature of the resistance wire/thermistor to rise. is sensed by a suitable bridge circuit and is further amplified to give a suitable display on an appropriate read out/recording device. spectrometry is useful in the qualitative and quantitative determination in the number of organic gases and liquid. type of device has in general higher minimum sensitivity than the chromatograph system.

This

IR

This

Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Non-dispersive Infrared & Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysers
However,

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certain gases like oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine and all other elemental diatomic gases as well as the inert gases do not absorb the infrared radiations and therefore cannot be studied using this method. oxides of nitrogen i.e., NO and NO2 do not have the absorption spectrum in the IR range. IR lamp in the spectrometer is replaced by a UV lamp and then with suitable filter, we can detect the oxides of nitrogen by using NDUV method.

The

Therefore

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Smoke Density Measurement

The

discharge of large amounts of thick fumes and heavy smoke in the environment in a posh city resulted into generation of smog, which resulted into the decrease in visibility. method of smoke density based on the degree of opacity caused by the fumes/smoke issuing from attack. is usually determined by visual comparison of the discharge gas stream with the Ringleman scale. scale consists of a set of six Ringleman smoke charts ranging from white (0) to increasing darker shades with even

The

It

This

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Smoke Density Measurement

The

method is not suitable for continuous measurement as the comparison is based on manual observation. large plants, an electronic viscometer is usually employed for continuous sampling of smoke density of the exhaust stack. simplest system consisting of a lamp and a photo cell located on the opposite sides of the stack. smoke issues from the stack, it obstruct the light proportional to its density. intensity of the light incident on the

For

The

As

The

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Environmental Air Pollution Measurement Smoke Density Measurement

Alternatively

the sample of stack is passed through a standardized glass container. is then illuminated by a pulsed xenon lamp. light scattered by the sample volume is proportional to its smoke density which is measured by a photo-multiplier tube and associated solid state electronic circuitry. system is quite versatile and can be made to interfere with any type of data handling equipment using the conventional voltage output to drive a recorder or data logger, etc.

It

The

This

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Problems

The governing equation for the capillary tube viscometer is the well known Hagen-Poiseuelle equation:

where Q is the volumetric flow rate of the fluid in the capillary tube, D is the diameter of the capillary, is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, L is the length of the capillary tube and P is the pressure difference across the two ends of the tube. If Q, L, D and are measured with an uncertainty of P 1%, how accurately is know? Further, if the uncertainty in the measurement of D is reduced to 0.1% by using improved instrumentation, what is the improvement achieved in the uncertainty of ?

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Problems
The

viscosity of an oil of specific gravity 0.90 was measured with a capillary tube viscometer consisting of a glass pipe of an accurate bore of 10 mm with a length of 0.6 m under a head of 2 m of oil. A quantity of 840 cm3. Was found to flow in 60 s. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil in poise. Further check if the flow is laminar.

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Summary
Humidity

& Moisture Measurement,

technique,

Psychrometer, Dew-point Hair

hygrometer, and hygrometer.

Humistor pH

Measurement, Pollution Measurement

Apparatus for Exhaust Gas Analysis,

Environmental Orsat Gas

Chromatography,

Non-dispersive

Infrared and Non-dispersive Ultraviolet Gas Analysis, and

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Thanks