Research Methods in Management 1

Introduction and qualitative methods

If you feel that your statistical background is particularly weak, start by reading this!!

Why research methods?

Two key aims:

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Note: research methods is different from other modules you will be taught, e.g. International Business, HR or Marketing.
Think of research methods as your toolkit to carry out and assess academic work.

Three types of research

Exploration (What is going on?) Description (What is going on?) Explanation (Why is it going on?)

A researcher may ask descriptive questions; e.g. is the level of inequality increasing or decreasing; is there economic convergence or divergence across regions. What questions often provoke why questions: (why is this happening?) Much research deals with why something is going on (explanatory research). Why do firms in a specific location perform better compared with firms located in other regions?

Explanatory research

It is one thing to describe the profitability of firms across countries/sectors, or change in performance over time; its another thing to develop an explanation as to why profitability is as high as it is, why some sectors perform well and others not. Answering why questions involves developing causal explanations. These explanations argue that a phenomenon Y is caused by a phenomenon X. Some causal explanations will be simple others may be very complex.

Explanatory research
1. Direct causal relationship

R&D
2. Indirect causal relationship

Productivity

R&D
3.

Innovation
Capital investment Skills

Productivity

More complex causal model

R&D

Innovation

Productivity

Government support

Be aware of correlations without causation!!

Co-variation of GDP per capita and number of telephones per household Co-variation between number of storks and number of births Also consider the following: The number of police officers in a city is positively correlated with the number of murders committed. The number of fire engines at a fire is positively correlated with the damage caused by the fire.

Clearly, you would not conclude that the number of police officers or fire engines cause an increase in murder or damages by fire.

Correlation and causation (1)

Its not always that obvious. Example: Money buys elections

Most people tend to agree that money has some influence over election outcomes Indeed election data shows a correlation between money spent by a candidate during the election campaign and election outcomes

Correlation and causation (2)

But, just because two factors X and Y are correlated does not mean they cause one another. The correlation does not tell you anything about the direction of the relationship: from X to Y, or from Y to X (issue of reverse causality) Or, it is possible that another factor Z causes both X and Y (third variable effect)

Correlation and causation (3)

Example: Money buys elections

Consider reverse causality: Lets assume you are the sort of person who would contribute to the campaign of a candidate 1,000. When are you likely to give that money? A close race, in which you think money will influence the outcome Or a campaign in which one candidate is a sure winner and you are expecting some future in-kind considerations The one candidate you wont support is a sure loser! Consider third variable effects: Picture two candidates; one intrinsically appealing and the other not. The appealing candidate raises much more money and wins the election. Now, was it the money that won the election, or, was it the appeal that won both the money and the election?

Research design

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible!

e.g. money buys elections or candidates appeal attracts money and wins elections
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Two types of explanatory research

Attempts to answer why questions are referred to as theories. Theory is central to the research process. There are two different styles to research: theory building (induction) and theory testing (deduction)

Theory building and theory testing

Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4 Empirical level inductive reasoning Conceptual/abstract level Theory

Conceptual/abstract level deductive reasoning Empirical level

Theory Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3 Obs 4

The logic of the research process

Starting point for theory testing

Theory New theory

Implications for propositions

Proposition s

Data analysis Data Collectio n

Develop measures, sample etc

Starting point for theory building/extending

Different types of research design

Design type Method of data collection Experiment Questionnaire Case study Questionnaire Longitudinal design Questionnaire Cross-sectional design Questionnaire

Interview Interview Interview Interview (standardized/ (standardized/ (standardized/ (standardized/ unstandardized) unstandardized) unstandardized) unstandardized) Observation Analysis of documents Observation Analysis of documents Observation Analysis of documents Observation Analysis of documents

Do not make the mistake of confusing design with data collection methods.

Assessing research design

Internal validity Can the research design sustain the causal conclusion that we claim for it? The more the structure of the research eliminates alternative explanations, the stronger the internal validity of the study. We may not be able to eliminate all alternative explanations, but we aim at reducing them. External extent can the results from a study be generalised beyond that study? A study may have good internal validity, but what if it is only applicable to one or a few specific case Reliability validity Measurements consistent

Introduction to qualitative methods

What is qualitative research? Why choose a qualitative approach? Qualitative research designs Collection of qualitative data Analysis of qualitative data Quality issues

Qualitative and quantitative data and methodologies

Quantitative research
Based on meanings derived from numbers other symbols Collection results in numerical and standardised data

Qualitative research
Based on meanings expressed through words and non-numerical

Collection results in nonstandardised data requiring classification into categories Analysis through the use of conceptualisation

Analysis through the use of diagrams and statistics

Qualitative research what is it?

The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of quantity, amount, intensity or frequency. Qualitative research stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape enquiry

Qualitative research what is it?

A means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social and human problem involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participants setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data the importance of rendering the complexity of the situation

Qualitative research what is it?

Qualitative research methods are designed to help researchers understand people and what they say or do (and to) understand the social and cultural context within which people live if you want to understand peoples motivations, their reasons, their actions, and the context for their beliefs and actions in an in-depth way, qualitative research is best

Research design
Philosophical worldviews Strategies of inquiry Specific research methods

Philosophical worldviews

a basic set of beliefs that guide action Epistemology, ontology i.e. (post)positivism, social constructivism

Strategies of Inquiry

Quantitative: experiments, surveys

Qualitative: case study, ethnography, etc. Mixed: sequential, concurrent

Specific research methods

Data collection (i.e questions)

Data analysis Interpretation Validation Writing up

Qualitative research common features

Focus on phenomena that occur in their natural settings, in the real world Study those phenomena in all their complexity Social relations and human behaviour cannot be studied by natural science methods interpretation and meaning are crucial There is no single truth but multiple perspectives

Qualitative studies in business and management

Quantitative research methods originate from the natural sciences and were for long considered better and more scientific than qualitative methods From the 1980s, an increased interest in qualitative research Human behaviour versus nature

Why choose a qualitative research approach?

The easy way out (-) Large samples, generalization to a large population (-) Trends or patterns that apply in many situations (-) Exploration (+) Rich/thick description (+) Interpretation (+) Particular context (+) Validation of statistical findings (+) Evaluation (+) Cause-effect relationships (?)

Qualitative research designs

Case study Ethnography Phenomenology Grounded theory Narrative methods Content analysis Action research

Ethnography
Study of the everyday behaviour (e.g., interactions, language, rituals) in order to identify norms, beliefs, structures Fieldwork Observation

Phenomenology
Focus on a persons perceptions, perspectives and understanding of a particular situation Open-ended interviewing

Grounded theory
The discovery of theory from data Application of a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon Starts from separate data, proceeds with coding, conceptualization and theory building

Narrative methods
Stories rather than words as units Organizational stories provide unique insight into organizational life Critique of grounded theory

Action research
Interactive inquiry process Problem solving actions implemented in a collaborative context and data-driven collaborative analysis or research The purpose is to understand underlying causes enabling the solving of specific problems in relation to personal and organizational change

Collection of qualitative data

Sampling Observation Interviews Written documents Audiovisual material

Sampling
Random sampling (representativeness) Generalized knowledge from a few cases or even one case? Purposeful sampling (e.g. theoretical sampling, intensity sampling, maximum variation, deviant cases)

Observation

The systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of peoples behaviour Participant observation... implies a research strategy of immersion (by the researcher) in the research setting, with the objective of sharing peoples lives while attempting to learn their symbolic world Research as an employee Observation alone Semi-concealed research

Interviews

Structured interviews Semi-structured interviews Unstructured or in-depth interviews Respondent interviews Informant interviews One-to-one: Face to face interviews One-to-one: Telephone interviews One to many: Focus group interviews

Analysis of qualitative data

Quantitative research: data collection, data analysis and data interpretation are distinct separate stages No clear distinction data collection/data analysis/data interpretation in qualitative research

Quality issues in qualitative research

Internal validity: accuracy of the findings (finding the truth)? potentially high! validity strategies External validity: to what extent can the results from a study be generalised beyond that study? contextual knowledge, conscious choice Reliability: how to apply consistent methods that secure stability of findings? many problems (i.e. observer bias) reliability procedures Additional quality criteria (trustworthiness, credibility, authenticity)