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Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle fibers have a striated appearance Skeletal muscle is composed of two fiber types:
Extrafusal: innervated by alpha-motoneurons from the spinal cord: exert force Intrafusal: sensory fibers that detect stretch of the muscle
Afferent fibers: report length of intrafusal: when stretched, the fibers stimulate the alpha-neuron that innervates the muscle fiber: maintains muscle tone Efferent fibers: contraction adjusts sensitivity of afferent fibers. 8.2
myofibril is made up of overlapping strands of actin and myosin During a muscle twitch, the myosin filaments move relative to the actin filaments, thereby shortening the muscle fiber
8.3
Neuromuscular Junction
The neuromuscular junction is the synapse formed between an alpha motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber
Each
axon can form synapses with several muscle fibers (forming a motor unit) The precision of muscle control is related to motor unit size
8.4
Always cause muscle fiber to fire Voltage changes open CA++ channels
CA++
Movement
Located in large arteries, around hair and in the eye Responds to neural or hormonal stimulation Muscle fibers produce spontaneous pacemaker potentials that elicit action potentials in adjacent smooth muscle fibers Single-unit muscle is found in gastrointestinal tract, uterus, small blood vessels
Single-unit
Cardiac muscle fibers resemble striated muscle in appearance, but exhibit rhythmic contractions like that of single-unit smooth muscle
8.6
Creatine Phosphate
Motor Unit
All the muscle cells controlled by one nerve cell
Back muscles
1:100
Finger muscles
1:10
Eye muscles
1:1
Muscle Fatique
Lack of oxygen causes ATP deficit Lactic acid builds up from anaerobic respiration
Muscle Atrophy
Weakening and shrinking of a muscle May be caused
Immobilization Loss
of neural stimulation
Muscle Hypertrophy
Steroid Hormones
Muscle Tonus
Tightness of a muscle Some fibers always contracted
Tetany
Sustained contraction of a muscle Result of a rapid succession of nerve impulses
Tetanus
Refractory Period
Brief period of time in which muscle cells will not respond to a stimulus
Refractory
Refractory Periods
Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Isometric Contraction
Produces no movement Used in
Isotonic Contraction
Produces movement Used in
Walking Moving
fibers are in parallel with extrafusal fibers Intrafusal receptors fire when the extrafusal muscle fibers lengthen (load on muscle)
Actually detect the length of muscle Intrafusal fibers activate agonist muscle fibers and inhibit antagonist muscle fibers Extrafusal contraction eliminates intrafusal firing
8.22
Golgi
horn receives incoming sensory information Ventral horn issues efferent fibers (alphamotoneurons) that innervate extrafusal fibers
8.24
Monosynaptic reflexes involve a single synapse between a sensory fiber from a muscle and an alpha-motor neuron
Sensory
fiber activation quickly activates the alpha motor neuron which contracts muscle fibers
Patellar reflex Monosynaptic stretch reflex in posture control
8.25
Polysynaptic reflexes involve multiple synapses between sensory axons, interneurons, and motor neurons
Alpha motoneuron connected to the agonist muscle An inhibitory interneuron connected to the antagonist muscle Signals from the muscle spindle activate the agonist and inhibit the antagonist muscle
Polysynaptic Reflex
8.27
Motor Cortex
cortex is somatotopically organized (motor homunculus) Motor cortex receives input from
Premotor cortex Supplemental motor area Frontal association cortex Primary somatosensory cortex
Planning of movements involves the premotor cortex and the supplemental motor area which influence the primary 8.28 motor cortex
Motor Homunculus
8.29
8.30
Axons from primary motor cortex descend to the spinal cord via two groups
Lateral
Ventromedial
Vestibulospinal tract: control of posture Tectospinal tract: coordinate eye and head/trunk movements Reticulospinal tract: walking, sneezing, muscle tone 8.31 Ventral corticospinal tract: muscles of upper leg/trunk
Corticospinal Tract
Neurons of the corticospinal tract terminate on motor neurons within the gray matter of the spinal cord
Corticospinal tract starts in layer 5 of primary motor cortex Passes through the cerebral peduncles of the midbrain Corticospinal neurons decussate (crossover ) in the medulla
80% become the lat. corticospinal tract 20% become the ventral corticospinal tract
The Apraxias
Apraxia refers to an inability to properly execute a learned skilled movement following brain damage
Limb
apraxia involves movement of the wrong portion of a limb, incorrect movement of the correct limb part, or an incorrect sequence of movements
Callosal apraxia: person cannot perform movement of left hand to a verbal request (anterior callosum interruption prevents information from reaching right hemisphere) Sympathetic apraxia: damage to anterior left hemisphere causes apraxia of the left arm (as well as paralysis of right arm and hand) Left parietal apraxia: difficulty in initiating movements to verbal request
Constructional
damage
Basal ganglia consist of the caudate nucleus, the putamen and the globus pallidus
Input
to the basal ganglia is from the primary motor cortex and the substantia nigra Output of the basal ganglia is to
Primary motor cortex, supplemental motor area, premotor cortex Brainstem motor nuclei (ventromedial pathways)
Cortical-basal
ganglia loop
Frontal, parietal, temporal cortex send axons to caudate/putamen Caudate/putamen projects to the globus pallidus Globus pallidus projects back to motor cortex via thalamic nuclei 8.35
8.36
Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease (PD) involves muscle rigidity, resting tremor, slow movements
Parkinsons results from damage to dopamine neurons within the nigrostriatal bundle (projects to caudate and putamen) Slow movements and postural problems result from
Loss of excitatory input to the direct circuit (caudate-Gpi-VA/VL thalamus-motor cortex) Loss of output from the indirect circuit (which is overall an excitatory circuit for motor behavior)
8.37
Huntingtons Disease
is caused by degeneration of the caudate nucleus and putamen Cell loss involves GABA-secreting axons that innervate the external division of the globus pallidus (GPe) The GPe cells increase their activity, which inhibits the activity of the subthalamic nucleus, which reduces the activity level of the GPi, resulting in excessive movements
The Cerebellum
cerebellum
This lobe has inputs and outputs to the vestibular system Involved in control of posture
Vermis
Receives auditory and visual information from the tectum and cutaneous information from the spinal cord Vermis projects to the fastigial nucleus which in turn projects to the vestibular nucleus and to brainstem motor nuclei
Damage to the cerebellum generally results in jerky, erratic and uncoordinated movements
8.40