Cells: The Living Unit

Cells general
4 aspects of cell theory
Cell = basic structural & functional unit of life
Properties relate to properties of life

Principle of Complementarity
Activities of cells dictated by specific structures of cells Activity of organism depends on activities of individual and collective cells

Continuity of life - based on cellular level

 Characteristics of cells

Cells general cont.

Vary in size, shape, and function Composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen Same basic parts & common functions Plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, and nucleus

Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
Defines cell Separates fluid components

Plasma membrane = selectively permeable barrier, regulating how substances pass into and out of cell Composed of a double layer of phospholipids embedded with small amounts of cholesterol and proteins

Intracellular fluid w/in cells & extracellular fluid outside/between cells

 Fluid mosaic model =

Plasma membrane cont.

Composed of

Bilayer - lipid molecules w/ protein molecules dispersed Proteins float w/in bilayer = changing mosaic pattern Double layer phospholipids (tail to tail w/ polar
heads exposed to water inside & outside)

embedded w/ cholesterol, proteins & glycolipids

Plasma membrane cont.

Surfaces of the plasma membrane
Outer surfaces: contains more lipids Contains glycolipids (sugar lipid) Make outer surface more polar Inside contains: proteins, phospholipids, & cytoskeleton Lipid containing phosphorus 2 components Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic

Phospholipids

Polar head has charge water loving Nonpolar tail does not have charge water fearing

P.M.

Plasma membrane cont.

Plasma membrane proteins
Integral proteins:
Firmly inserted into plasma membrane
Protrude from membrane Receptors for hormones, chemical messengers, chemical relay messengers

Transmembrane proteins:

Span entire membrane = transport Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions Channel proteins Pore water soluble molecules pass Carrier proteins Bind to substances move through membrane

P.M

Plasma Membrane cont.

Peripheral proteins:
Not embedded in plasma membrane, attach to integral proteins or to phospholipids Filaments helps support membrane on cytoplasmic side Involved in changing cells shape (during division)

The glycocalyx is fuzzy, sticky, carbohydraterich area surrounding cell

Attach to proteins or phospholipids Provides a specific biological markers Recognize self from non-self

P.M.

Specialization of plasma membrane

Microvilli
Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane Increase surface area of cell
Absorptive function = kidneys and intestines

Contains actin
Contractile protein - helps microvilli stay upright

Specializations cont.
Membrane junctions
Keep cells close together Cell adhesives =
Glycoproteins Wavy contours of cells = stick together - tongue and grove fashion

Tight junctions
Integral proteins - adjacent cells fuse together form impermeable junctions nearest cell surface Prevents molecules from passing between cells

Junctions

Specializations cont.
Membrane junctions cont. -

Desmosomes
Anchoring junctions prevent separation Linker proteins:
Extend from plaque on cytoplasmic face Span one cell to other & attach to other cells plaque

Reduces chances of ripping when tension is applied not a seal but increase tensile strength

Desmosomes

Specializations cont. Membrane junctions cont.

Gap junctions
Communication junction Chemical substances & small molecules pass between cells Connexons hollow tubules - allow communication - cytoplasm's are close In eclectically charged tissues

Gap junctions

Cellular concentrations...
Solute
Substance dissolved within solution Ex. Sugar, salt, calcium, etc.

Solvent
Substance in which solutes are dissolved vat in which substances dissolve typically water

Concentration gradient
Difference in solute concentration inside and outside cell

 Passive processes

Passive processes

Does not require energy (ATP)

Substances down a concentration gradient

From higher concentration to lower concentration

Substances move through plasma membrane WITH OUT cellular energy Types of Passive Processes
Diffusion Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Filtration

 Diffusion (simple diffusion)

Passive processes

Tendency molecules (solutes) to scatter evenly throughout environment Move directly if

Goal = equilibrium molecules moving equally in all directions no net movement no change in charge molecules balanced on each side

Lipid soluble Small - pass through membrane channels Nonpolar oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, fat-soluble vit

Passive processes cont.

Diffusion cont
Movement of molecules from:
Higher concentration to lower concentration = down concentration gradient

Molecules move quickly & erratically

Grater concentration difference = faster diffusion process Movement due to kinetic energy of molecules
Larger molecule = faster diffusion (greater kinetic energy) Warmer temp faster diffusion

Dont like to be close move to areas where numbers are lower (high to low)

Passive processes cont. Diffusion cont.

Facilitated diffusion Substances moved through PM by binding to protein carriers or membrane channels Transport proteins change shape allow substances (glucose & simple sugars) through Transported down concentration gradient high to low

Passive processes cont.

Osmosis
Movement of water Water = polar = slips through PM Occurs until solute concentrations balance Movement due to solute concentrations

Water moves when solute concentrations differ Requires less energy to move water than a solute Osmolarity total number of all solute particles w/in a solution Osmotic pressure cells ability to resist further (net) water movement when solute concentrations are equal

Osmosis

Passive processes cont

Osmosis cont.
Tonicity
Solutions ability to change tone or shape of cells by altering internal water volume Number of non-penetrating solutes Solutions with same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes on either side of cell Solutes equal inside and outside cell No net movement of water molecules Cells keep normal shape - no net movement of water Body fluids = isotonic

Isotonic

 Osmosis cont.
Hypertonic

Passive process cont.

Hypotonic

Extracellular solutions = high concentrations of solutes Lose water equalize solutes Losing = cells shrink or crenate Salts, sugars, sports drinks, etc = cells lose water Extracellular solutions containing fewer solutes more dilute than cell Cells take on water - tries to equalize solutes inside cell Can take on so much water eventually burst or lyse Rehydrating sports drinks, cola, apple juice, etc increase amount of water cells absorb, causing rehydration

Tonicities

Isotonic

Hypertonic

Hypotonic

Passive processes cont.

Filtration
Pressure driven = forces water & solutes through membrane or capillary wall = hydrostatic pressure Pressure gradient - pushes solute & fluid from high concentrations to lower concentrations Not a selective process anything small enough will be pushed, by pressure, through plasma membrane

 Active Processes:

Active processes

Cells use energy, ATP, move substances against concentration gradient

Active transport

Solute pumps move substances against concentration gradient Energy needed directly or indirectly Provide movement - substances who cant pass by diffusion Ions such as Na+ and K+ need protein transport (solute pump) to move across the membrane against concentration low to high

Active processes cont.

Active transport cont.
Primary active transport (direct)
Energy provided directly by hydrolysis of ATP Transport protein change shape - pumps solute across membrane (sodium potassium pump) K+ higher inside cell Na+ higher outside cell Leak across plasma membrane (concentration gradient) pump needed to keep K+ higher inside and Na+ higher outside

Active processes cont.

Active transport cont.
Secondary active transport (indirect)
Driving forces of primary transport indirectly drives transport of other solutes As sodium transported drags other solutes with it co-transported (sugars and amino acids) Solutes are co-transported which is passive would not transport w/o energy required to move sodium

Active transport

Active transport cont.

Active transport cont
Vesicular transport Large particles (macromolecules) transported across plasma membrane Energized by ATP Two types Endocytosis Exocytosis

Active transport cont.

Vesicular transport
Exocytosis out of cell Substances from inside cell to extracellular Hormone secretion, neurotransmitting, ejection of waste, mucus secretion Substance enclosed in membranous sac = vesicle

Exocytosis

Active transport cont.

Endocytosis
into cell Substances into cell by extensions of plasma membrane 3 types
Phagocytosis Bulk-phase endocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Active transport cont.

Endocytosis cont
Phagocytosis
cell eating Cytoplasmic extensions = pseudopods = protrude from cell, cover solid material Formed vesicle = phagosome Fuses with lysosome digest contents Enfolding of plasma membrane Contains extracellular fluid w/ dissolved molecules Allows cell to sample contents of extracellular fluid

Bulk-phase endocytosis

Enodcytosis

Active transport cont.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Most common method for specific uptake Enzymes, insulin, hormones, and iron Flu viruses utilize method to attack cells Receptors = membrane proteins bind w/ certain substances Create vessicle = coated pit

Enodcytosis

Membrane potentials
Membrane potential = voltage across membrane occurs due to separation of oppositely charged particles Resting cell exhibits resting membrane potential cell is polarized inside more negative than outside Determined by
Charge only exists at membrane Concentration gradient of potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) More K+ within cells More Na+ in extracellular fluid K+ diffuses out cell impermeable to Na+ More positive charges outside the cell giving it a more negative charge

Cellular environmental interactions

Membrane receptors
Groups of integral proteins and glycoproteins serve as binding sites Function:
Contact signaling
Touching of cells Recognizing other cells Bacteria and viruses Respond to changes in voltage Neural and muscle tissue Most membrane receptors Nervous & endocrine systems

Electrical signaling Chemical signaling

 Cytoplasm = cellular material between cell membrane and nucleus, site of most cellular activity Elements of cytoplasm
Cytosol
Fluid - cytoplasmic elements are suspended Water w/ salts, proteins, sugars & solutes Components/workings of cell Not a functional unit Chemical substances Ex: lipid droplet in a fat cell

Components of the cell

Cytoplasmic organelles

Cytoplasmic inclusions

Components of the cell

Organelles
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell - produce ATP More mitochondria = more energy cell needs Large quantities liver and muscle cells

Ribosome
Consist of proteins & ribosomal RNA Site of protein synthesis

 Endoplasmic reticulum

Components of the cell cont.

Continuous with nuclear membrane Two types Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes make it appear rough Manufactures proteins secreted from cell produces components of membranes Liver & secretory cells Continuation of RER Lipid & cholesterol synthesis & steroid-based hormones (sex hormones) Absorption, synthesis & transport of fats detoxification of drugs Breakdown of glycogen form free glucose

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Components cont.
Golgi apparatus
Modifies, concentrates, & packages proteins Proteins bud off in vesicles from ER & bind with golgi then are modified Golgi creates vessicles - proteins transferred to PM - excreted into extracellular space Involved in digestion & phagocytosis (bacteria, viruses, & toxins) Degrading nonfunctional/worn-out organelles Break down non-useful tissues

Lysosomes

Components cont.
Peroxisomes Cytoskeleton
Digestion of alcohol

Centrosomes & centrioles Cellular extensions

Cells skeleton - supports cell structure & generates cell movements

Organizes mircrotubules & mitotic spindles - form base of cilia and flagella

Cilia

Flagella

Occur in large numbers Move together, move & propel substances Single Whip like motion propels self Sperm

 Control center of the cell Nuclear envelope Nuclear pores Nucleoli

Nucleus

Binds nucleus Double layer membrane continuous with rough ER Regulates entry and exit of large particles

Chromatin

Site of ribosome production & contains DNA

DNA (genetic materials) & histone proteins

Nucleosomes

Chromosomes

Eight histone proteins & DNA molecule

Condensed chromatin Utilized when cells divide

Developmental aspects of cells

Aging Wear-and-tear Accumulation of free radicals May be result of autoimmune responses & progressive weakening of immune system

Apoptosis Programmed cell death Cell suicide (lysosome breaks open & kills cell) Cancer = cells fail to go through apoptosis Strokes & heart attacks increase the rate of apoptosis