History of Biological

Warfare - Globally

• 1925 Geneva Protocol

• 1972 Biological Weapons
Convention
» signed by 103 nations
• 1975 Geneva Conventions
Ratified
PROTOCOL FOR THE PROHIBITION OF
THE USE IN WAR OF ASPHYXIATING,
POISONOUS OR OTHER GASES, AND OF
BACTERIOLOGICAL METHODS OF
WARFARE

Opened for signature: 17 June

1925, entered into force: 8
February 1928

Geneva Protocol
 ПРОТОКОЛ О ЗАПРЕЩЕНИИ
ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ НА ВОЙНЕ УДУШАЮЩИХ,
ЯДОВИТЫХ ИЛИ ДРУГИХ ПОДОБНЫХ
ГАЗОВ И БАКТЕРИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ
СРЕДСТВ

Женева, 17 июня 1925 года

 Biological Weapons
Convention
Convention on the Prohibition of the
Development, Production and Stockpiling of
Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons
and on Their Destruction
Signed at Washington, London, and Moscow
April 10, 1972
 Joint Statement by President George W. Bush and
President Vladimir on Cooperation Against Bioterrorism
November 13, 2001
At Shanghai, we resolved to enhance cooperation in
combating new terrorist threats, including those involving
weapons of mass destruction.
We agree that, as a key element of our cooperation to
counter the threat of terrorist use of biological materials,
officials and experts of the United States and Russia will
work together on means for countering the threat of
bioterrorism, now faced by all nations, and on related
health measures, including preventive ones, treatment and
possible consequence management.
 What role can Russia play in Combating
Infectious Diseases And Bioterrorism Threats

The threat of biological weapons and their use

in bioterrorism have increased. At the same
time there are huge improvements in the
knowledge of infectious diseases. How do we
contain the threat of biological warfare (BW)
and bioterrorism and continue to make
progress in eliminating and treating infectious
diseases?

S.V. Netesov, L.S. Sandakhchiev, VECTOR, Novosibirsk

 In the past 20 years, more than 30 previously
unknown infectious agents have been identified.
They causing such diseases as AIDS, hemorrhagic
fevers, antibiotic resistant bacterial strains, hepatitis C,
etc., A significant part of these infectious diseases result
from the ability of microorganisms to mutate and
adapt to humans and their medical treatment
environment of medical prophylaxes and treatments.
These properties, combined with increasing human
mobility and migration and the increasing number of
people with suppressed immunity, and several other
factors, make the emergence of new diseases and
variants more likely.
Biological Warfare Nonproliferation
and Threat Reduction
The issues of nonproliferation and threat
reduction of biological weapons based on
infectious agents are different from other weapons
of mass destruction (WMD).
We believe that the major nonproliferation and
threat reduction efforts should focus on already
working with emerging pathogens research
centers, which might present a source of expertise
for potential bioterrorists.
 Russia’s Role in Infectious Disease
Research and International Cooperation
Russia has great potential in the area of infectious
disease research, as well as in development and
manufacture of therapeutic and prophylactic
preparations at facilities of the Russian Ministry of
Public Health, those of BIOPREPARAT and of local
public health establishments. Two large State Research
Centers of the Russian Ministry of Public Health — for
Applied Microbiology (Obolensk, European region)
and Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR (Koltsovo,
eastern region) — were involved in biological defense
programs of the former Soviet Union before 1990.
The State Research Center of
Virology and Biotechnology
VECTOR, operated by the VECTOR
Russian Ministry of Public
Health, is a large research
and production complex,
whose primary activities are
focused on basic and applied
research in the theoretical
virology, molecular biology,
virology, immunology,
aerobiology, epidemiology,
and biotechnology. VECTOR
also develops and
manufactures preventive,
therapeutical and diagnostic
preparations.
VECTOR is one of two scientific and experimental facilities
in Russia mainly focusing on virus infection research. The
State Research Center for Applied Microbiology, Russian
Ministry of Public Health (Obolensk, Moscow Oblast), is a
similar scientific and experimental center, involved in
bacterial infections research. VECTOR and Obolensk are
the only institutions in both Russia and the rest of the CIS
countries in which studies of highly dangerous pathogens
can be done at an up-to-date level.
 VECTOR’s research and production VECTOR
facilities amount to more than 250,000
m2 on over 8,000 hectares (19,768
acres). The research and experimental
facilities at VECTOR are equipped for
up-to-date scientific work with highly
pathogenic human and animal viruses,
under conditions of complete biosafety.
Several buildings meet special
biosafety requirements for high
containment facilities (BSL 2, 3, and
4): an air-tight external perimeter,
negative pressure in the working zone,
complete sterilization (liquid, and
solid) or reliable filtration (air) of all
types of discharge.
 VECTOR
The research and technical
staff of the Center are highly
qualified personnel, specializing
in the field of genetic
engineering, molecular biology,
virology, theoretical virology,
immunology, epidemiology, and
ecology. The staff has extensive
experience in highly dangerous
viruses research and in
production of diagnostic and
prophylactic preparations for
public health and veterinary
needs.
 VECTOR
The Collection of Cultures of
Microorganisms in VECTOR
contains over 10,000 deposit
entries: various viral strains,
including the national collection
of variola virus strains and
strains of BSL-4 viral pathogens;
recombinant viral strains; strains
of microorganisms, including
producer strains. The Collection
received international recognition
in 1995 when it was affiliated with
the European Culture Collection
Organization (ECCO).
 VECTOR also houses one of the
two WHO Collaborating Centers
VECTOR
for orthopoxvirus diagnosis and
repository for variola virus
strains and their DNA. The other
WHO Collaborating Center for
smallpox and other poxvirus
infections is at the CDC in
Atlanta, USA. As a WHO
Collaborating Center, VECTOR
preserves and studies the Russian
collection of variola virus isolates.
The research collaboration
between these two Centers is
promising in terms of basic
science and confidence building.
 VECTOR
VECTOR’s Breeding and
Holding Facility for
laboratory animals, which
includes one of only two
monkey breeding facilities
operating in Russia, is used
for testing therapeutic and
diagnostic preparations.
Facilities for the
performance of preclinical
and clinical trials of new
medicinal preparations are
available at VECTOR.
Possible research at the proposed
International Center could focus on
VECTOR
arboviruses, including tick-borne
encephalitis virus that is endemic in
Russia; HFRS virus, Omsk
hemorrhagic fever virus – both endemic
in Siberia; filoviruses: Marburg and
Ebola; orthopoxviruses: smallpox virus,
monkeypox, and cowpox viruses;
viruses causing hepatitis A, B, C;
paramyxoviruses, rabdoviruses,
influenza viruses, etc. This list of
viruses could be extended by bacteria
and parasites, such as tuberculosis,
which is increasing sharply now in
Russia, and opisthorchiasis – human
parasitic disease affecting the liver. The
latter is endemic in Siberia, too.
The aims of the Federal Center of
Hygiene and Epidemiology

• Sanitary and Epidemiological measures

in case of situation with the outbreaks of
infectious diseases or during disasters;

• Statistical monitoring for control of

infectious diseases at the federal level,
reporting;
The structure of the Federal Center
of Hygiene and Epidemiology
• Disaster
department

• Epidemiological
department

• Laboratory
services
 The period until 1991

Life expectancy (both sexes)

80
70 63
59
60
47 47 Russia
50 43
40 32 France
30
20 USA
10
0
1900 1938
 The period until 1991

Life expectancy in 1965

80 73,4 74,7 73,7
70 64,3 67,3 66,8
60
50 Russia
40 France
30
20 USA
10
0
Men Women
The health care principles upon which
the Soviet health care system was to
be based (Nikolai Semashko):
• government responsibility for health
• universal access to free services
• a preventive approach to “social
diseases”
• quality professional care
• a close relation between science and
medical practice
• continuity of care between health
promotion, treatment and rehabilitation.
 Next steps following the
establishment of the “Semashko”
model in 1918
• The health care system was under the
centralized control of the state, which financed
services by general government revenues as
part of national social and economic
development plans.
• All health care personnel became employees of
the centralized state, which paid salaries and
provided supplies to all medical institutions.
• The main policy orientation throughout this
period was to increase numbers of hospital
beds and medical personnel.
 Next steps following the
establishment of the “Semashko”
model in 1918 (cont.)
• Russia made massive strides in arresting the
spread of infectious diseases.
• Drastic epidemic control measures were
implemented, particularly in the cases of
tuberculosis, typhoid fever, typhus, malaria and
cholera.
• These involved community prevention approaches,
routine check-ups, improvements in urban
sanitation and hygiene, quarantines, etc.
 Health crisis
• The diverging paths of Russia and other
industrialized nations with respect to
health status from the 1960s onward
has been attributed to the failure of the
Russian health care system to
successfully respond to the
epidemiological transition.
 The leading causes of death
in the Russia Federation

• Cardiovascular diseases with rates that are

the highest in the European Region.

• External causes of injury and poisoning

• Cancer
CVD

Injury

Cancer
Average
for 1999-
2001
 WHY was prophylaxis with Ciprofloxacin extended to 60 days?

More on Sverdlovsk 

Source: New York Department of Health

BECAUSE in Sverdlovsk cases appeared more than 40 days

after
Source:exposure, and because
New York Department of Health of data from animal experiments
Lidia Tretyakova looks at the tombstone of her
father, Lazar Karsayev, at a cemetery in
Yekaterinburg, Russia, Thursday, Oct. 18, 2001. A
mysterious outbreak of anthrax killed at least 68
people, including Karsayev, 22 years ago in the
Russian industrial center of Sverdlovsk, today known
as Yekaterinburg. At the time, neither the victims
Laboratory workers at the Sverdlovsk regional
epedemiological service put on the special suits
they wear when working with anthrax and other
dangerous bacteria in Yekaterinburg, Russia,
 Terrorism
• Is an unlawful act of violence

• Intimidates governments or societies

• Goal is to achieve political, religious or

ideological objectives

Arthur H. Garrison
 Prevention of Terrorism

• Primary prevention:
– Education!!!
– Understand the differences in cultures,
religions, beliefs and human behaviors
– Think of the peace, freedom and equality
of all human beings, not just “my group
of people”
– Eliminate the root of terrorism
 Prevention of Terrorism

• Secondary prevention:
– Establish surveillance and monitoring
system on terrorism attack
– Improve protective system for citizens
 Prevention of Terrorism

• Tertiary prevention
– Early detection of the sources
– Prevent the extension of impairments
– Rescue the survivors
– Console the rest of the population
Proportion of death from terrorism
in total death in the United States
Average From From all Proportion
death per terrorism causes (%)
year
1990’s 8 2534203 0.0003

2001 2893 2404624 0.12

 Risk of Dying
Smoking 10 cigarettes a day One in 200
All natural causes age 40 One in 850
Road accident One in 8,000
Playing soccer One in 25,000
Homicide One in 100,000
Terrorism attack in 2001 One in 100,000
Hit by lightning One in 10,000,000
Terrorism attack in 1990’s One in 50,000,000

Penguin Books, 1987

 Death Rate of Various Causes in
2000 USA and that from Terrorism
Heart disease* One in 400
Cancer * One in 500
Cerebrovascular diseases* One in 2,000
Accidents * One in 3,000
Diabetes* One in 4,000
Suicide* One in 10,000
Homicide* One in 20,000
Terrorism in 2001 One in 100,000
Terrorism in 1990’s One in 50,000,000
 Why did terrorism draw
considerable attention in 2001?
• The risk of dying from terrorism was
extremely low in 1990’s, and was still
relatively low compared with some
diseases in 2001
• But the death rate increased by 500 times
in 2001 due to Sept. 11
• Overall the death rate of terrorism has
not been high
• Despite the low risk, shock, surprise and
fear engulfed the United States and
world
 Conclusion
• Terrorism is unlawful act
• Terrorism has a long history of being used
to achieve political, religious and ideological
objectives
• Terrorism can be conducted through
firearms, explosive devices and biological,
chemical, nuclear materials
• Even through the events of 2001, the risk of
dying from terrorism has remained much
lower than that from motor vehicles,
smoking, and alcoholic beverage.