Cell Structure

Chapter 3

3.1 Impacts/Issues Food For Thought

Bacteria in our intestines make vitamins and keep us healthy but other bacteria make toxins that can contaminate foods and even kill us

Video: Food for thought

3.2 What, Exactly, Is a Cell?

Cells are the fundamental units of all life

All cells start life with a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and a region of DNA which, in eukaryotic cells only, is enclosed by a nucleus

Examples of Cells
Some single-celled organisms (protists)

Cell Structure
A plasma membrane surrounds the cell and controls which substances move in and out Plasma membrane
A cells outermost membrane

Lipid bilayer
Structural foundation of cell membranes; mainly phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in a bilayer

A Lipid Bilayer

one layer of lipids

one layer of lipids

a lipid bilayer
p. 43

Cytoplasm

An important part of homeostasis is maintaining the composition of cytoplasm, which differs from fluid outside the cell Cytoplasm
Semifluid substance enclosed by a cells plasma membrane

Organelles

Cell metabolism occurs in cytoplasm and internal compartments, including organelles Organelle
Structure that carries out a specialized metabolic function inside a cell

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cells are classed as eukaryotes or prokaryotes based on how DNA is housed in the cell Nucleus
Organelle with two membranes that holds a eukaryotic cells DNA

Nucleoid
Region of cytoplasm where DNA is concentrated in a prokaryotic cell

Surface-to-Volume Ratio
Cells must be small to efficiently exchange materials with their environment Surface-to-volume ratio limits cell size and influences cell shape Surface-to-volume ratio
A relationship in which the volume of an object increases with the cube of the diameter, but the surface areas increases with the square

Surface-to-Volume Ratio

Animation: Surface-to-volume ratio

The Cell Theory

Cell theory is the fundamental theory of biology Cell theory
All organisms consist of one or more cells The cell is the smallest unit of life Each new cell arises from another cell A cell passes hereditary information to its offspring

The Cell Theory

Animation: Overview of cells

3.3 Measuring Cells

Most cells are visible only with the help of microscopes Different types of microscopes use light or electrons to reveal different details of cells

Bacteria on the Tip of a Pin

Bacteria are the smallest and simplest cells

Fig. 3-3a, p. 45

Fig. 3-3b, p. 45

Fig. 3-3c, p. 45

Animalcules and Beasties

No one knew cells existed until microscopes were invented

1600s: van Leeuwenhoeks microscope

sample holder

focusing knob

lens
Leeuwenhoeks microscope
p. 45

Hooke, Schleiden, and Schwann

1600s: Robert Hooke improved the microscope and coined the term cell

1839: Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann realized cells were alive and proposed the cell theory

Modern Microscopes

Different types of microscopes reveal different aspects of cell structure

Light microscope (phase contrast) Light microscope (reflected light) Fluorescence microscope Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope

Same Organism, Different Microscopes

A Light micrograph. B Light micrograph. A phase-contrast A re ected light microscope yields microscope captures high-contrast images light reected from of transparent opaque specimens. specimens, such as cells.

C Fluorescence micrograph. The chlorophyll molecules in these cells emitted red light (they uoresced) naturally.

m 10 D A transmission E A scanning electron electron micrograph micrograph shows reveals surface details of fantastically cells and detailed images of structures. SEMs internal may be artificially structures. colored to highlight certain details.

Fig. 3-4, p. 46

Relative Sizes

Fig. 3-5a, p. 46

electron microscopes molecules of life lipids DNA (width) viruses complex carbohydrates proteins mitochondria, chloroplasts

light microscopes most eukaryotic most cells bacteria

small molecules

0.1 nm

1 nm

10 nm

100 nm

1 m

10 m

Fig. 3-5a, p. 46

Fig. 3-5b, p. 47

human eye (no microscope) largest organisms small animals humans frog eggs

100 m

1 mm

1 cm

10 cm

1m

10 m

100 m

Fig. 3-5b, p. 47

Animation: How an electron microscope works

Animation: Wavelengths of light

3.4 The Structure of Cell Membranes

The plasma membrane is basically a lipid bilayer balloon filled with fluid

The nonpolar tails of both layers are sandwiched between the polar heads

uid

p. 48

The Fluid Mosaic Model

A cell membrane is a mosaic of proteins and lipids (mainly phospholipids) that functions as a selectively permeable barrier that separates an internal environment from an external one Fluid mosaic model
A cell membrane can be considered a twodimensional fluid of mixed composition

Membrane Proteins
Proteins associated with a membrane carry out most membrane functions
Transport proteins passively or actively assist specific ions or molecules across a membrane Enzymes speed chemical processes Adhesion proteins help cells stick together Recognition proteins tag cells as self Receptor proteins bind to a particular substance outside the cell

Cell Membrane Structure

Fig. 3-6a, p. 48

A Phospholipids are the most abundant component of eukaryotic cell membranes. Each phospholipid molecule has a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails.

hydrophilic head

two hydrophobic tails

Fig. 3-6a, p. 48

Fig. 3-6b, p. 48

B In a watery uid, phospholipids spontaneously line up into two layers: hydrophobic tails cluster together, and hydrophilic heads face outward, toward the uid. This lipid bilayer forms the framework of all cell membranes.

one layer of lipids one layer of lipids

Fig. 3-6b, p. 48

Fig. 3-6c, p. 48

Animation: Lipid bilayer organization

Animation: Cell membranes

Animation: Fluid mosaic model

3.5 Introducing Prokaryotic Cells

Domains Bacteria and Archaea make up the prokaryotes Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms with no nucleus, but many have a cell wall and one or more flagella or pili

Prokaryote Body Plan

Cell wall
Semirigid but permeable structure that surrounds the plasma membrane of some cells Consists of peptides and polysaccharides (in bacteria) or proteins (in archaeans) In some bacteria, a sticky capsule of polysaccharides surrounds the cell wall

Prokaryote Body Plan

The cytoplasm contains ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule in a nucleoid region, and may contain additional genes as plasmids Ribosome
Organelle of protein synthesis

Prokaryote Body Plan

Surface extensions allow certain actions Flagellum
Long, slender cellular structure used for mobility

Pilus
A protein filament used to help cells cling to or move across surfaces, or for plasmid transfer

Prokaryote Body Plan

agellum

capsule cell wall plasma membrane

cytoplasm, with ribosomes DNA in nucleoid

pilus
Fig. 3-8, p. 50

Animation: Typical prokaryotic cell

Prokaryote Diversity

As a group, prokaryotes are the smallest and most metabolically diverse forms of life Prokaryotes inhabit nearly all regions of the biosphere many archaeans are adapted to extreme environments

Prokaryote Diversity: Bacteria

A Protein filaments, or pili, anchor bacterial cells to one another and to surfaces. Here, Salmonella Typhimurium cells (red) use their pili to invade human cells.
Fig. 3-7a, p. 50

B Ball-shaped Nostoc cells are a type of freshwater photosynthetic bacteria. The cells in each strand stick together in a sheath of their own jellylike secretions.
Fig. 3-7b, p. 50

Prokaryote Diversity: Archaeans

C The archaean Pyrococcus furiosus was discovered in ocean sediments near an active volcano. It lives best at 100C (212F), and it makes a rare kind of enzyme that contains tungsten atoms.
Fig. 3-7c, p. 51

D Ferroglobus placidus prefers superheated water spewing from the ocean oor. The durable composition of archaean lipid bilayers (note the gridlike texture) keeps their membranes intact at extreme heat and pH.
Fig. 3-7d, p. 51

Biofilms

Biofilms are shared living arrangements among bacteria and other microbial organisms that provide various advantages to the community Biofilm
Community of different types of microorganisms living within a shared mass of slime

3.6 A Peek Inside a Eukaryotic Cell

All eukaryotic cells start life with a nucleus, ribosomes, organelles of the endomembrane system (including endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, Golgi bodies), mitochondria, and other organelles

The Nucleus
Pores, receptors, and transport proteins in the nuclear envelope control the movement of molecules into and out of the nucleus Nuclear envelope
A double membrane that constitutes the outer boundary of the nucleus

The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system includes rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, and Golgi bodies Endomembrane system
Series of interacting organelles between the nucleus and plasma membrane Makes and modifies lipids and proteins Recycles molecules and particles such as wornout cell parts, and inactivates toxins

The Endomembrane System

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A continuous system of sacs and tubes that is an extension of the nuclear envelope Rough ER is studded with ribosomes (for protein production) Smooth ER has no ribosomes

The Endomembrane System

Vesicle
Small, membrane-enclosed, saclike organelle Stores, transports, or degrades its contents

Peroxisome
Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down amino acids, fatty acids, and toxic substances

Lysosome
Vesicle with enzymes for intracellular digestion

The Endomembrane System

Golgi body
Organelle that modifies polypeptides and lipids Sorts and packages the finished products into transport vesicles

Vacuole
A fluid-filled organelle that isolates or disposes of wastes, debris, or toxic materials

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA they resemble bacteria and may have evolved by endosymbiosis Mitochondrion
Double-membraned organelle that produces ATP

Chloroplast
Organelle of photosynthesis

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts: Bacteria-Like Organelles

Fig. 3-11a, p. 54

outer membrane

outer compartment inner compartment inner membrane

Fig. 3-11a, p. 54

Fig. 3-11b, p. 54

two outer membranes stroma inner membrane

Fig. 3-11b, p. 54

Animation: Structure of a mitochondrion

Animation: Structure of a chloroplast

The Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton
Dynamic network of protein filaments that support, organize, and move eukaryotic cells and their internal structures

The cytoskeleton interacts with accessory proteins, such as motor proteins

Cytoskeletal Elements
Microtubules
Cytoskeletal elements involved in movement Hollow filaments of tubulin subunits

Microfilaments
Reinforcing cytoskeletal elements Fibers of actin subunits

Intermediate filaments
Elements that lock cells and tissues together

Cytoskeletal Elements

Fig. 3-12a, p. 55

tubulin subunit

Fig. 3-12a, p. 55

Fig. 3-12b, p. 55

10 m
Fig. 3-12b, p. 55

Motor Proteins
Motor proteins are the basis of movement they interact with microfilaments in pseudopods or (in cilia and eukaryotic flagella) microtubules Motor proteins
Energy-using proteins that interact with cytoskeletal elements to move cells parts or the whole cell

Motor Proteins
A motor protein moves a vesicle along a microtubule

Animation: Motor proteins

Cilia and False Feet

Cilia
Short, hairlike structures that project from the plasma membrane of some eukaryotic cells Coordinated beating stirs fluid, propels motile cells Moved by organized arrays of microtubules Example: clears particles from airways

Flagella
Eukaryotic flagella are whiplike structures that propel cells such as sperm through fluid
Different internal structure and motion than prokaryotic flagella

False Feet

Pseudopod (false foot)

Extendable lobe of membrane-enclosed cytoplasm for movement or to engulf prey Moved by motor proteins attached to microfilaments that drag the plasma membrane Example: amoebas

Components of an Animal Cell

9
2 1 3 6

7 4 5

Fig. 3-9, p. 52

Animation: Common eukaryotic organelles

An Animal Cell

nuclear mitochondrion DNA in nuclear envelope nucleus pore

rough ER with attached ribosomes

Fig. 3-10, p. 53

Animation: Structure of a mitochondrion

Animation: The endomembrane system

Animation: Flagella structure

Animation: Nuclear envelope

Animation: Structure of a chloroplast

Animation: Cytoskeletal components

3.7 Cell Surface Specializations

Cell junctions
Connect a cell structurally and functionally to another cell or to extracellular matrix (ECM)

Extracellular matrix (ECM)

Complex mixture of substances secreted by cells Supports cells and tissues Functions in cell signaling

Types of Animal Cell Junctions

Tight junction
An array of fibrous proteins that joins epithelial cells and prevents fluids from leaking between them

Adhering junction
Anchors cells to each other or to extracellular matrix

Gap junction
Forms a channel across plasma membranes of adjoining animal cells

Types of Animal Cell Junctions

1 Tight junctions Rows of proteins that run parallel with the free surface of a tissue; stop leaks between adjoining cells.

2 Adhering junction A mass of interconnected proteins that welds one cell to another or to ECM; anchored under the plasma membrane by intermediate filaments.

3 Gap junction Cylindrical clusters of proteins that span the plasma membrane of adjoining cells; clusters are often paired as channels that open and close.

Fig. 3-14, p. 56

Animation: Animal cell junctions

Tight Junctions Around Kidney Cells

Cell Connections in Plants

In plants, plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasms of adjoining cells Plasmodesmata
Open channels that extend across the primary walls of adjoining cells Allow materials such as water, nutrients, and signaling molecules to flow through

Animation: Plant cell walls

3.8 Impacts/Issues Revisited

Fresh foods marked with this symbol have been irradiated to kill bacteria potential health risks from eating irradiated foods are unknown

p. 57

p. 57

Digging Into Data: Organelles and Cystic Fibrosis

Fig. 3-16a, p. 59

ATP

ATP

CF deletion

Fig. 3-16a, p. 59

Fig. 3-16b, p. 59